Viswajanani Sattigeri, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Traditional Knowledge Digital Library Unit, India

Abstract

The workshop on “Indigenous Peoples’ Knowledge and the Sciences” organised by the Pontifical Academy of Sciences (PAS) and the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences (PASS) focused on bringing together indigenous knowledge and local communities and the science fraternity to arrive at common understanding, objectives and joint work to address climate change vulnerabilities affecting lives and livelihoods. The workshop witnessed participation from across the world, and India shared its experiences on handling and working with traditional knowledge (TK) and the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL). The importance of national government policies was highlighted in the context of preserving, protecting and promoting TK for better socio-economic growth in the country, while also addressing India’s interventions to improve the livelihoods of the indigenous and local communities. Further, the talk covered aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and People’s rights, while laying emphasis on ethical practices to be followed to respect the Moral Rights of the concerned knowledge holder(s).

1.    Overview and Discussion

1.      Traditional Knowledge – Preservation and Protection

Traditions and culture have always been integral to the identity of people and every nation’s heritage. Despite the prevalence and practice of the traditions and cultural expressions globally, traditional knowledge (TK) still does not have an accepted definition internationally. The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) states that TK embraces the content of knowledge resulting from intellectual activity in a traditional context, and includes know-how, practices, skills, and innovations and traditional cultural expressions.[1] Traditional cultural expressions (TCEs) or “expressions of folklore”, according to WIPO, include “artistic or cultural expressions such as music, dance, art, designs, names, signs and symbols, performances, ceremonies, architectural forms, handicrafts and narratives, among others”.[1] Further, TK can exist in both codified and oral forms, and may be disclosed or undisclosed in public domain.[1]

Owing to its very nature, TK has often been confined to specific regions and communities within a nation. While the ownership of TK often rests with nations, disclosed codified TK is public knowledge. However, in case of undisclosed TK, including oral, the custodians are primarily the knowledge holder(s) themselves and often sensitive sacred knowledge and beliefs are associated with this category.

While the TK is intergenerational and has traversed time, in conventional terms, intellectual property (IP) as defined by WIPO includes “creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce”.[2] Though both TK and IP are creative works of the mind, IP rights (IPR), a modern era development, are to enable the right holder(s) to earn ownership, recognition or financial benefit from such IP creations through available legal provisions. TK does not enjoy such protection and thus becomes a subject matter of misuse, misappropriation and bio-piracy.

In general terms, TK includes two major categories of protection – defensive and positive.[3] While codification of TK is a way of preserving intergenerational knowledge, it also offers the TK content as prior-art information under conventional IP systems. Codified TK, when provided as prior-art information, stops and prevents third parties from claiming IP ownership rights on such knowledge and thus serves as a means of defensive protection. Lacking such provisions, the concerns of unethical use of oral and undisclosed TK remain. However, considering that the custodians of such knowledge are the concerned individuals or communities, it calls for positive protection where promotion of such knowledge to improve the livelihoods of the knowledge holder(s) bears prime importance. Countries thus look for enactment of sui generis legal frameworks to protect such knowledge and practices.

2.      Biopiracy and Misappropriation of TK

The TK, both in its native form as well as minor variations thereof, have been the subject matter of patent grants across IP jurisdictions globally. This matter is of high concern to nations which are victims of TK misappropriation and biopiracy. Patents when granted can be opposed only through litigation, which is a complex task. Further, revocation of patent grants is not a feasible option for all patents on TK, as the efforts require keen intent, time and money. Further, the process of identifying such patent grants on TK is a laborious manual task and could be missed lacking the relevant correct search terms or knowledge thereof. Sometimes, one finds patent grants on TK accidently and from unexpected sources.

The classical examples of biopiracy and misappropriation of Indian TK include patent grants on the wound healing properties of turmeric, basmati rice and the fungicidal formulation from neem.[4]

a)    Turmeric has been traditionally used in India as an ingredient in food, medicines, cosmetics and dyes, besides others. A patent (no. 5,401,504) on the use of turmeric in wound healing was granted to the University of Mississippi Medical Centre by the US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). India challenged the patent on the grounds of existing prior art from the classical texts relating to Indian systems of medicine and research publications in journals. The USPTO upheld the objections and cancelled the patent on the grounds of it lacking novelty. The turmeric patent revocation was a first of its kind success for a developing nation on its TK.

b)    Rice Tec. Inc. from the USA filed for registering a trademark “Texmati” at the UK Intellectual Property Office. Agricultural and Processed Food Exports Development Authority (APEDA), India opposed it successfully. In this context, the company submitted a granted patent (no. 5,663,484 by USPTO) as evidence in support of the trademark registration. The patent claimed (particularly claims 15-17) a rice plant having characteristics similar to the traditional Indian Basmati Rice lines. Information from the Indian Agricultural Research Institute Bulletin and the germplasm collection of the Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad were presented as evidences to oppose the patent. Upon India’s re-examination request, Rice Tec withdrew claims 4 and 15-17.

c)    In India and several South Asian countries, neem extract has been used for its pesticidal properties in agriculture. The seed oil is known for its medicinal properties and when mixed in soap, it provides relief from malaria, skin diseases and even meningitis. The European Patent Office (EPO) granted a patent (no.436257) to W.R. Grace Company and the US Department of Agriculture for a method using hydrophobic extracted Neem oil for controlling fungal growth on plants. India, through a group of NGOs and representatives of Indian farmers, undertook a legal course of opposition against the patent. Evidences were submitted from Indian TK on the subject matter which indicated that neem extracts were used traditionally in Indian agriculture to protect crops. EPO revoked the patent granted on the grounds of it lacking an inventive step.

The misappropriation and biopiracy of TK is not limited to India alone. Some examples from across the world include erroneous patent grants to third parties on Kava, an important cash crop in the Pacific, especially in Fiji and Vanuatu regions; on Ayahuasca from the Amazon basin; on Quinoa, a staple food crop of the Andes; on Hoodia from Africa, among others. Besides the wrongful patent grants on TK, the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity on access and benefit sharing were also not followed in several of the cases, which have been detrimental to the lives and rights of the knowledge holder communities.

2.    Defensive Protection of TK – Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) – A Case in Point

India took strong cognizance of the fact that even its codified TK was not serving as prior-art literature to patent offices, which continued to offer grants on patents related to its TK. India also recognized that its TK is primarily in its native languages such as Sanskrit, Hindi, Arabic, Urdu, Tamil etc., besides ancient dialects that are now not in use. Even the codified Indian TK literature is neither accessible nor understood by the examiners at patent offices. However, the significant efforts, time and money expended in patent litigations drew to attention a strong need for India to protect its TK from misappropriation and biopiracy. An effective intervention was required to bridge this gap, and ensure that India’s TK is served as prior-art to patent offices for their pre-grant process of patent applications. India thus conceived a proactive mechanism for TK protection through a defensive framework. In 2001, India set up a pioneering initiative called the “Traditional Knowledge Digital Library” (TKDL) to protect Indian TK from misappropriation through patent grants by patent offices worldwide. The TKDL was initiated jointly as a collaborative activity of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India and the Department of Indian Systems of Medicine & Homeopathy (now Ministry of AYUSH), India. The CSIR through its constituent, the CSIR-TKDL Unit, handles and administers the work on TKDL. Globally, TKDL was a first of its kind tool for protecting and preserving TK.[5]

To begin with, the TKDL focused on the Indian systems of medicine (ISM) namely, Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Sowa Rigpa and Yoga. To address the challenge of language and access barriers, the TKDL was conceptualized as a bridge between local Indian languages and language and format understandable to patent examiners. The TK from the existing codified literature was transcribed into five languages covering English, German, Spanish, French and Japanese, in a digital format.

The TKDL is based on an innovative structured classification system, the “Traditional Knowledge Resource Classification” (TKRC) to provide a structured and systematic arrangement and dissemination of TK information so it can facilitate easy and focused search and retrieval by patent examiners. The TKDL is not a transliteration of TK information, thus meeting its objective of a value-added prior-art database of Indian TK. Traditional terminology is also linked to modern terminology. Concordance is drawn between the TKRC and the International Patent Classification (IPC) codes. The TKDL information structured under section, class, subclass, group and subgroup provides for convenience of use by patent examiners. The search features include both simple and advance searches with complex Boolean operators. Thus, the database is a knowledge-based conversion in a digital format, wherein information transcribed into several languages serves as prior-art in a recognizable format. Thus, the digital database of TK is an effective tool to prevent misappropriation and biopiracy of Indian TK. Today, the TKDL database comprises about 4.67 lakh formulations/practices that have been transcribed from the texts of Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Sowa Rigpa and Yoga.

To add to the efficacy of the framework put in place, the CSIR-TKDL Unit also files third party observations and pre-grant oppositions on patent applications that are related to Indian TK on ISMs and provides evidences from the TKDL database. Based on the TKDL evidences, so far 329 positive outcomes have been obtained so far – these include patent application refusals, rejections, amendment of claims and other aspects of the patent application, withdrawal and/or abandonment of the patent application by the concerned Parties.[6] Thus, the TKDL has been serving as an exemplary prior-art database on TK for both protection and preservation of the ancient knowledge and practices.

3.    Importance of Government Policies – Preservation, Protection and Promotion of TK

The TKDL has been an important initiative from India to safeguard its TK from unauthorized use and wrongful claim of ownership of such knowledge. At a practical level, it is important to realise that TK, which is intergenerational, is not a static matter or a relic of the past. The continued use of TK as means of livelihood to several people and in the context of global competitiveness, the ineffectiveness of modern interventions to address all the unmet needs, indicates the continued relevance of TK to meet the current and future needs as well. Globally, TK is understood to be aligned with the ecology and environment of the time, and provides for a balanced human-planet well-being. In current times, the TK may be used in its native form, can be co-opted or integrated with contemporary modern practices or innovated further upon. However, worldwide, TK does not seem to receive its due recognition and promotion thereof, for utilization and application in every day life. In this content, the initiatives from India provide encouraging examples of how government policies on TK are important.

Herein, the author limits herself to discussing India’s important policies on TK that cover the broad horizons of education to innovation. Right from inculcating the importance of TK in a child’s mind through formal education process to furthering R&D and then innovation and trade, India has been placing continued focus on TK, IPR as well as people’s rights. Some key aspects are mentioned below.

1.      Education: The National Education Policy 2020 (NEP2020)[7] lays emphasis on including the TK from India as part of school and college academic curriculums. Some extracts from the Policy document include the following on Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS):

“4.27. ‘Knowledge of India’ will include knowledge from ancient India and its contributions to modern India and its successes and challenges, and a clear sense of India’s future aspirations with regard to education, health, environment, etc.

These elements will be incorporated in an accurate and scientific manner throughout the school curriculum wherever relevant;

In particular, Indian Knowledge Systems, including tribal knowledge and indigenous and traditional ways of learning, will be covered and included in mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, yoga, architecture, medicine, agriculture, engineering, linguistics, literature, sports, games, as well as in governance, polity, conservation.

Specific courses in tribal ethno-medicinal practices, forest management, traditional (organic) crop cultivation, natural farming, etc. will also be made available…”.

The NEP2020 stresses upon use of local languages to impart education with an inclusive approach. The NEP2020 also recommends the following:

“5.6. Schools/school complexes will be encouraged to hire local eminent persons or experts as ‘master instructors’ in various subjects, such as in traditional local arts, vocational crafts, entrepreneurship, agriculture, or any other subject where local expertise exists, to benefit students and help preserve and promote local knowledge and professions”.

The motto of the Ministry of Education, India on IKS is “Value-education and Value-based Education for Value-based Living”. The University Grants Commission (UGC), India has put in place “Guidelines for Incorporating Indian Knowledge in Higher Education Curricula”.[8] Every student enrolled in an undergraduate (UG) or postgraduate (PG) programme is encouraged to take IKS courses to at least 5% of the total mandated credits. Further, the UGC Guidelines lay emphasis on highlighting the objectives, methodology and core concepts of IKS; the contemporary applications of IKS, where applicable, is to be indicated; the IKS courses are to be given in Indian languages, among others.

The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), India has provided guidance on a Minor Degree in Universal Human Values (UHV)[9] which would cater to students completing 18 credits in IKS courses and that the credits of the mandatory IKS are to be counted in total IKS course credits. Under this, there would be a mandatory 3-week Student Induction Program that would cover Indian culture and civilization along with its knowledge systems and traditions.

The Ministry of Education, India has also set up the IKS Division[10] under its ambit, whose Vision is “To promote interdisciplinary research on all aspects of ‘Indian Knowledge Systems’, preserve and disseminate ‘Indian Knowledge Systems’ for further research and societal applications”. The Mission of the IKS Division is “Create a database of individuals and organizations who have contributed by way of Research, Teaching, Publication and Preservation of ancient and contemporary rich Indian knowledge systems ranging from art, music, dance, drama, to mathematics, astronomy, science, technology, life sciences, environment and natural sciences, health care, yoga, law, jurisprudence, economics, social sciences, psychology, philosophy, management, linguistics, oral traditions of India, knowledge hidden in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Tamil, Pali, etc.”. The IKS Division provides support for (i) Internships to encourage and enthuse youth to take up deeper study in IKS; (ii) Research Proposals, wherein catalytic grants are given to young scientists and grants to established scientists to embark on new research directions or approaches in IKS; and (iii) IKS Centers covering research centers, teacher training centers and language centers to serve as a catalyst for initiating research, education, and outreach activities.

Materials for the educational courses across diverse areas are also being developed in the country to emphasise the importance of the national heritage and continued relevance through the times.

2.      Innovation

In India, TK continues to be a means of livelihood for a sizeable population and the country is home to several diverse living traditions and culture. Two specific Ministries, namely, the Ministry of Culture and the Ministry of AYUSH, have been established with specific focus on the traditional cultural aspects of the country and traditional medicine, respectively. Considering the continued contributions of the traditional practices and interventions to socio-economic development and growth, India’s Ministry of Commerce and Industry, specifically the constituent Department for Promotion of Industry & Internal Trade (DPIIT) ensures an inclusive approach towards TK. The DPIIT handles matters related to IPR, including its legal frameworks and policies, besides other matters of industry and trade.

The Vision statement of the National Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Policy 2016 of India[11] is as follows: “An India where creativity and innovation are stimulated by Intellectual Property for the benefit of all; an India where intellectual property promotes advancement in science and technology, arts and culture, traditional knowledge and biodiversity resources; an India where knowledge is the main driver of development, and knowledge owned is transformed into knowledge shared”. TK and biological/genetic resources (GR) have been given due importance in this innovation policy.

The Policy specifically includes the following on TK:

“2.30. Promote India’s rich heritage of traditional knowledge with the effective involvement and participation of the holders of such knowledge. Traditional knowledge holders will be provided necessary support and incentives for furthering the knowledge systems that they have nurtured from the dawn of our civilization.

4.12. Introduce approaches and mechanisms so that benefits of the IP system reach all inventors including MSMEs, informal innovators and holders of traditional knowledge.”

Further, the National IPR Policy 2016 provides the following recommendations on the TKDL:

·       Scope be expanded to include other fields besides traditional medicine;

·       Research institutions and private sector be allowed access to TKDL for furthering R&D, with necessary safeguards to prevent misappropriation;

·       Document oral traditional knowledge, preserving integrity and that the life of communities involved is not compromised;

·       Continue efforts to include TKDL as a part of PCT minimum documentation.

In the aforesaid context, the CSIR-TKDL Unit is working towards including TK information from other subject areas. Further, considering the immense potential that the value-added TK information in the TKDL can offer, the Government of India accorded approval to widen the user base of the TKDL database. The CSIR-TKDL Unit is working out the procedures and processes for the same. On the sensitive subject matter of oral TK, especially considering moral rights, the CSIR-TKDL Unit is putting together a guidance document on handling and working with the yet undisclosed TK, that includes oral knowledge. The guidance lays emphasis on ethical practices that need to be followed in order to respect the rights and livelihoods of the knowledge holders. The key principles recommended include (i) Free and prior informed consent that mainly targets understanding the interests and concerns of knowledge holder(s); defining the objectives; and specifying the roles of the concerned persons, among others. (ii) Attribution of TK to the concerned knowledge holders by way of acknowledging and recognizing the contributions of the knowledge holder(s) by way of authorship; inventorship; partnership, etc. (iii) Access and Benefit Sharing: arriving at the mutually acceptable terms and conditions of access, including benefit sharing; and also updating the knowledge holders on developments from time to time on the knowledge being used.

The CSIR has also put in place a unique national program entitled “SVASTIK”, which is to communicate scientifically validated TK and practices to the public.[12] The objective of this program is “to conserve the practice of the right tradition, inculcate scientific temper of verifying tradition in a scientific manner and instill confidence in citizens regarding the scientific value of India’s traditional knowledge/practices”. The activity provides simplified creative content on the specific TK which is then disseminated through digital platforms, including social media platforms, in English, Hindi, and various other Indian languages.

In addition to the above, among other positive protection frameworks loosely related to TK, India’s interventions for promoting registration of Geographical Indications (GI) deserves special mention. The GIs are IPR tools that provide protection to goods, “where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of such goods is essentially attributable to its geographical origin”.[13] The GIs cover three major categories of goods – Agricultural, Manufactured (including handicrafts (handloom & textiles), food stuff (wines & spirits) and manufactured industrial goods, and Natural. The GI registration provides for recognizing communities and their products towards better branding and income generation. So far, about 535 GIs have been registered in the country. India has also initiated “One District One Product” (ODOP) program[14] that aims at recognition of a local product with its unique characteristics and identity associated with that region. The establishment of ODOP and GI-specific stores across the country, including at railway stations and airports, fosters wider recognition and adoption of these traditional products among people.

Thus, India provides for a canvas of interventions that reiterate the significance of the valuable heritage and the continued need for preserving, protecting and promoting TK to address needs of the current times and the future.

4.    Key International Initiatives – TK, IPR and People’s Rights

In the context of IPR, India is a signatory to the World Trade Organization’s Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement. As one of the member states of the WIPO, India is also an active participant in the proceedings of the Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC).[15] Though the IGC was established in 2000, no concrete decisions could be taken by the WIPO considering the complexity of issues associated with TK, TCEs and GR. In reference to TK, the IGC-WIPO has also suggested creation of databases/registers on TK information. Documentation of TK shall provide for preserving TK, including confidential TK/TCEs, protect TK from misappropriation by providing prior art, promote R&D & innovation, and thereby enable benefits through PIC and ABS, while facilitating and managing rights of TK holders. However, the key challenge of the IGC-WIPO is on arriving at a text that balances effective protection of TK/TCEs, and the interests of knowledge holders and other stakeholders. In this context, the WIPO has planned a Diplomatic Conference in May 2024 to conclude an international legal instrument on IP, GR and TK associated with GR.

Further, the matter of culture as a transformative driver of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) was also discussed at the G20 held in India. The G20 New Delhi Leaders’ Declaration of 9-10 September 2023[16] states the following:

“31. … We encourage the international community to protect the living cultural heritage, including the intellectual property, notably with regard to the impact of the over commercialization and misappropriation of such living heritage on the sustainability and on the livelihoods of practitioners and community bearers as well as Indigenous Peoples”.

The high recognition being placed by nations worldwide on the nature, diversity and importance of TK, including IPR and people’s rights, calls for concerted and immediate action for arriving at a legally binding instrument on the subject by all countries.

His Holiness Pope Francis, in his address to the participants in the Indigenous People’s Forum, Consistory Hall, on 10 February 2023[17] stated that, “…. We should listen to Indigenous Peoples more and learn from their way of life, so as to understand properly that we cannot continue to greedily devour natural resources…. The contribution of Indigenous Peoples is fundamental in the fight against climate change. And this has been scientifically proven…. I ask governments to recognize the Indigenous Peoples of the whole world, with their cultures, languages, traditions and spirituality, and to respect their dignity and their rights, in the knowledge that the richness of our great human family consists precisely in its diversity”. His Holiness stressed the importance of government policies and the narrative from India mentioned herein connects with the sentiments and recommendations.

This workshop on “Indigenous Peoples’ Knowledge and the Sciences”,[18] organized by PAS and PASS, stands testimony to the interests and actions of Vatican City State to preserve and promote TK for the well-being of the people and planet. Besides the representatives of the indigenous communities and the scientific fraternity, the workshop witnessed the participation of world bodies such as the United Nations (UN) and associated entities for discussing the subject matter towards facilitating the rights of the knowledge holders while bringing together TK and modern practices to address unmet needs, including issues of climate change. The workshop deserves much appreciation considering that parties with divergent views on indigenous knowledge and modern (western) science were called upon to converge on integrated approaches for addressing the rising needs of climate change, primarily affecting lives and livelihoods of the indigenous and local communities.

5.    Recommendations

The workshop provided India with an opportunity to share its experiences on handling and working with TK, while making efforts to address complex matters such as misappropriation, IPR and people’s rights. In case of undisclosed and oral TK, there is a critical need to put ethical frameworks in place, though a sui generis legal framework specific to TK would be the preferred one. While world bodies such as WIPO, CBD and FAO, among others, are making strong efforts to recognize TK and put in legal instruments in place, there is a need to recognize that the diversity of TK across nations is not a matter for simplification and normalization. The distinctness and diversity of TK are to be recognized as elements that align with the regional ecological and environmental needs and therefore the acceptance of a broad definition of TK and recognition of the continued role of TK in socio-economic growth and development are critical. Developed nations therefore need to have a strong commitment towards enabling an inclusive approach on TK and the people and nations concerned. On this matter, organizations such as PAS and PASS can play a stronger role in ensuring and accelerating the pace of activities and positive decision making on matters of TK, IPR and People’s rights.

6.    Acknowledgement

The author expresses gratitude to the PAS and PASS for the opportunity and sponsorship, and the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India for the financial and technical support to participate in the workshop held at PAS, Vatican City.

7.    Bibliography

1.      World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), 2022, Intellectual Property and Traditional Knowledge, https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/tk/en/docs/ip-tk-introduction-en.pdf, last accessed 26 March 2024.

2.      WIPO, n.d., What is Intellectual Property? https://www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/, last accessed 26 March 2024.

3.      WIPO, n.d., Traditional knowledge and intellectual property, https://www.wipo.int/tk/en/tk/#:~:text=Defensive%20protection%20refers%20to%20a,Patent%20Cooperation%20Treaty%20Minimum%20Documentation), last accessed 26 March 2024.

4.      Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL), n.d., Bio-piracy of Traditional Knowledge, https://tkdl.res.in/tkdl/langdefault/common/Biopiracy.asp?GL=Eng, last accessed 26 March 2024.

5.      TKDL, n.d., About TKDL, https://tkdl.res.in/tkdl/langdefault/Common/Abouttkdl.asp?GL=Eng, last accessed 26 March 2024.

6.      TKDL, n.d., TKDL Outcomes against Bio-Piracy, https://tkdl.res.in/tkdl/langdefault/Common/outcomemain.asp?GL=Eng, last accessed 26 March 2024.

7.      National Education Policy 2020, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, n.d., https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP_Final_English_0.pdf, last accessed 28 March 2024.

8.      Guidelines For Incorporating Indian Knowledge In Higher Education Curricula, The University Grants Commission, March, 2023, https://www.ugc.gov.in/pdfnews/6436045_Guidelines-IKS-in-HE-Curricula.pdf, last accessed 28 March 2024.

9.      Minor Degree in Indian Knowledge Systems, All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), https://fdp-si.aicte-india.org/download/Elective%20Courses%20for%20Minor%20Degree%20in%20IKS%20v9.pdf, last accessed 13 March 2024.

10.   Indian Knowledge Systems Division, Ministry of Education, India, n.d., https://iksindia.org/, last accessed 28 March 2024.

11.   National Intellectual Property Rights Policy 2016, Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, n.d., https://dpiit.gov.in/policies-rules-and-acts/policies/national-ipr-policy, last accessed 28 March 2024.

12.   SVASTIK- Scientifically Validated Societal Traditional Knowledge, n.d., https://niscpr.res.in/nationalmission/svastik, last accessed 28 March 2024.

13.   Geographical Indications of Goods, Intellectual Property India, n.d., https://ipindia.gov.in/gi.htm, last accessed 28 March 2024.

14.   One District One Product” (ODOP), n.d., https://www.investindia.gov.in/one-district-one-product, last accessed 28 March 2024.

15.   Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC), WIPO, n.d., https://www.wipo.int/tk/en/igc/, last accessed 28 March 2024.

16.   G20 New Delhi Leaders’ Declaration, New Delhi, India, 9-10 September 2023, https://www.mea.gov.in/Images/CPV/G20-New-Delhi-Leaders-Declaration.pdf, last accessed 28 March 2024.

17.   Address of His Holiness Pope Francis to participants in the indigenous people’s forum, Consistory hall, Friday, 10 February 2023, https://www.pas.va/content/dam/casinapioiv/pas/pdf-booklet/2024_booklet_indigenous.pdf, last accessed 28 March 2024.

18.   Indigenous Peoples' Knowledge and the Sciences, Combining knowledge and science on vulnerabilities and solutions for resilience, https://www.pas.va/en/events/2024/indigenous_peoples.html and https://www.pas.va/content/dam/casinapioiv/pas/pdf-booklet/2024_booklet_indigenous.pdf, last accessed 28 March 2024.