Hanieh Moghani, Senior Legal Counsel and Indigenous Advocate, Centre for Sustainable Development and Environment (CENESTA), Tehran, Iran

DOI: 10.65398/KDBW7597

1. Introduction

Context and Relevance

Indigenous Knowledge has played a pivotal role in the development and preservation of agricultural biodiversity, particularly among family and smallholder farmers who are often at the forefront of maintaining and enhancing crop diversity. This paper examines how the integration of Indigenous Knowledge into Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB) and Evolutionary Plant Breeding (EPB) offers significant benefits for sustainable agriculture, food security, food sovereignty, and adaptation to changing conditions and resilience.

Thesis Statement

Practicing the integration of Indigenous Knowledge into PPB and EPB is not only vital for enhancing plant genetic diversity but also a crucial strategy for addressing global food system challenges such as climate change, water scarcity, droughts, pests, diseases, and other environmental and climatic challenges.

2. Indigenous Knowledge in Agriculture: A Historical Overview

Traditional Practices

Plant breeding began with the advent of agriculture. Over thousands of years, Indigenous Peoples selected the best seeds and saved them for future planting. This careful selection led to the development of crops adapted to local conditions and environmental stresses. For example, ancient civilizations in the Fertile Crescent practiced selective breeding of wheat and barley, laying the foundation for modern agricultural systems (Harlan, 1995).

Examples from the Middle East and Asia

In the Fertile Crescent, traditional farming communities have long engaged in the selection of cereal crops such as wheat and barley, which are well-suited to the local’s diverse microclimates. Similarly, in the Himalayan region, Indigenous farmers have cultivated diverse rice varieties adapted to different altitudes, reflecting an intimate understanding of local ecosystems (Rerkasem, 2007). These ancient practices are mirrored in modern EPB projects, which build upon the genetic diversity preserved by Indigenous farmers.

Link to Modern Breeding

The evolutionary breeding approach is grounded in Indigenous knowledge, where farmers traditionally used mixtures for cultivation, believing that planting two or three varieties together was more beneficial than monoculture (Cleveland & Soleri, 2007). Modern breeding science, however, began with the collection of diversity from farmers’ fields, moving towards the purification of single varieties (Ceccarelli & Grando, 2007). Participatory breeding, on the other hand, is based on the principle that agricultural research should move out of research stations and into farmers’ fields, integrating farmers’ knowledge and regional needs into the selection of the final variety to be produced. This approach decentralizes the breeding process (Witcombe & Joshi, 1996). EPB introduces a different concept, where the focus is not on a single variety but on a large mixture of different varieties, with natural selection as the foundation (Ceccarelli & Grando, 2007). When EPB is conducted in research stations, it remains non-participatory and centralized; however, when implemented in farmers’ fields with their input, it becomes participatory and decentralized. The core of these methods is to increase genetic diversity in farmers’ fields and to promote in-situ conservation (Cleveland & Soleri, 2007).

3. Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB) and Evolutionary Plant Breeding (EPB)

Overview

Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB) and Evolutionary-Participatory Plant Breeding (EPPB) involve active collaboration between scientists and farmers, aiming to enhance genetic diversity in farmers’ fields and increase farmers’ access to crop genetic materials. In this study the focus is on the methodologies that support decentralized agricultural research and are designed to strengthen in-situ conservation, boost adaptive capacity, and increase farmers’ resilience to climate-related extreme events and other stresses. Both methods are adaptive, allowing for continuous feedback from farmers and adaptation to local conditions and climate changes.

Distinction Between Participatory and Evolutionary Plant Breeding

Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB): This approach involves a collaborative effort where farmers and researchers work together to develop and select crop varieties. PPB decentralizes the breeding process by incorporating the needs and preferences of farmers into decision-making. Unlike lab methods that rely solely on researcher-driven selection, PPB fosters a communicative space between scientists and farmers, ensuring that the resulting varieties are both scientifically robust and practically suited to local agricultural conditions (Ceccarelli & Grando, 2007). In PPB, farmers’ insights and local knowledge play a crucial role, leading to higher acceptance and effectiveness of the new varieties (Cleveland & Soleri, 2007). This process bridges the gap between scientific research and practical farming needs, promoting varieties adapted to specific local environments and challenges (Witcombe, Joshi, & McGregor, 2007).

Evolutionary Plant Breeding (EPB): EPB is grounded in Indigenous knowledge and practices, focusing on maintaining and enhancing genetic diversity through natural selection rather than selecting specific traits in controlled environments. This approach is based on the idea that agricultural systems evolve naturally over time. By managing diverse populations in farmers’ fields, EPB supports resilience to environmental changes and stresses (Ceccarelli, Grando, & Baum, 2007). EPB leverages the traditional knowledge of Indigenous farmers, who have developed and maintained diverse crop mixtures adapted to their specific ecological conditions. This method reflects a deep understanding of local ecosystems and agricultural practices, fostering a dynamic and adaptive breeding process (Ceccarelli & Grando, 2007).

In essence, while PPB integrates modern scientific techniques with local farmer knowledge to improve crop varieties, EPB relies on the principles of natural selection and genetic diversity rooted in traditional agricultural practices. Both approaches benefit from Indigenous knowledge but apply it differently: PPB incorporates farmer feedback into the breeding process, and EPB utilizes natural evolutionary processes guided by traditional practices. The integration of these methodologies highlights the importance of combining scientific advancements with traditional wisdom to enhance agricultural sustainability and effectiveness.

Case Studies in Asia and the Middle East

• Iraq: In Iraq, PPB initiatives have focused on barley, particularly in the northern regions where the crop is a staple. Farmers have collaborated with researchers to select varieties that are high-yielding and drought-resistant, leading to the development of barley varieties well-suited to Iraq’s semi-arid conditions (Ceccarelli, Grando, & Baum, 2007).
• Iran: In Iran, EPB and PPB projects involving wheat and barley have demonstrated increased resilience to climate variability through the use of diverse genetic populations, leading to varieties better adapted to local conditions (Ceccarelli & Grando, 2007).
• India: In India, PPB has been widely implemented in rice and maize. Farmers have worked closely with scientists to select varieties that meet local needs, such as resistance to specific pests or adaptability to particular climates. This has resulted in the widespread adoption of PPB-derived varieties, contributing to increased agricultural productivity and farmer empowerment (Joshi, Sthapit, & Witcombe, 2007).
• Bhutan: In Bhutan, participatory approaches in rice breeding have been successful. Farmers and scientists have collaborated to develop rice varieties well-adapted to the country’s diverse agro-ecological zones, resulting in varieties that are high-yielding and resistant to local pests and diseases (Witcombe, R.J., et al., 2001).
• China: In China, PPB programs have focused on rice and wheat. The participatory approach has allowed farmers to collaborate in selecting varieties that are high-yielding, disease-resistant, and adaptable to changing climate conditions, enhancing food security and agricultural sustainability (Zhao, X., et al., 2014).
• Syria: In Syria, PPB efforts have been concentrated on wheat and barley. Farmers have been involved in selecting varieties adapted to the harsh, dry conditions of the region, leading to cultivars that thrive under low-input conditions and contribute to genetic diversity conservation (Ceccarelli & Grando, 2007).
• Jordan: In Jordan, PPB has focused on improving the resilience of wheat and barley to water scarcity. Farmers have identified and selected varieties more tolerant to drought, crucial for Jordan’s water-stressed environment (Ceccarelli, Grando, & Singh, 2011).
• Nepal: In Nepal, participatory approaches in rice breeding have led to the development of high-yielding and pest-resistant varieties (Joshi, Sthapit, & Witcombe, 2007).
• Lebanon: In Lebanon, farmers practice EPB by cultivating mixtures of barley and wheat that have evolved over generations. These evolutionary populations show remarkable adaptability to Lebanon’s varied climates (Zencirci, 2005).

4. The Role of Indigenous Knowledge in Modern Plant Breeding

The domestication of crops such as wheat, barley, and lentils in the Fertile Crescent represents some of the earliest examples of plant breeding. Early farmers practiced selection and cross-breeding to improve crop yields and resistance to local pests and diseases, practices closely related to what is now recognized as Indigenous Knowledge in agriculture (Zohary & Hopf, 2000).

The principles underlying ancient plant breeding, such as the use of diverse genetic material and selection for environmental adaptability, are foundational to modern PPB and EPB. Many crops first domesticated by Indigenous Peoples are still central to food security today. Modern breeding science needs to integrate Indigenous knowledge and address farmers’ needs to enhance program effectiveness. The integration of modern techniques with Indigenous knowledge is essential for achieving optimal results (Ceccarelli & Grando, 2007). Modern breeding approaches traditionally focused on optimizing single-variety crops can benefit significantly from incorporating local agricultural practices and traditional knowledge. By leveraging the insights of Indigenous farming communities, modern breeding efforts can become more inclusive and effective (Cleveland & Soleri, 2007). Indigenous Knowledge provides crucial insights into local agroecosystems, pest management, and soil fertility that modern breeding programs often overlook. For instance, Indigenous farmers in Jordan have been actively involved in PPB projects focused on developing drought-resistant wheat varieties, which are crucial for the region’s arid conditions (Al-Khatib, 2014).

Examples:

• Lebanon: In Lebanon, participatory plant breeding efforts have led to the development of barley varieties that are both high-yielding and resilient to local environmental stresses. These efforts build on traditional knowledge of crop management and selection (Zencirci, 2005).
• Bhutan: Indigenous practices of barley cultivation in Bhutan have been integrated into modern breeding programs, resulting in varieties that are culturally significant and agronomically superior (Rai & Sherpa, 2018).
• Iran: Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB) has been applied to bread wheat and barley, particularly under rainfed and supplementary irrigation conditions. Farmers from various regions actively participated in the process, helping to identify the best seeds that not only offer good yields but also exhibit high resistance to drought, diseases, and pests.

Barriers to Integration

Despite the potential benefits, barriers such as legal restrictions on seed exchange, lack of recognition of Indigenous rights, and limited access to scientific resources hinder the full integration of Indigenous Knowledge into modern breeding programs. In some countries, for instance, legal frameworks often restrict the free exchange of seeds, which can limit the effectiveness of participatory approaches (Brush, 2005).

Policy Recommendations:

• Revision of Seed Laws: Allowing greater exchange and use of Indigenous varieties is essential for fostering innovation and resilience in agriculture.
• Protection of Indigenous Knowledge: Strengthening legal frameworks to protect Indigenous Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights is crucial for sustaining agricultural diversity.
• Collaborative Research: Promoting collaborative research programs that prioritize the participation of Indigenous communities will enhance the effectiveness of breeding programs and ensure that they are aligned with local needs.

7. Conclusion

Summary of Key Points

The paper underscores the importance of Indigenous knowledge in enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of plant breeding programs such as PPB and EPB. It highlights the need for greater collaboration between Indigenous communities, breeders, and research stations to address global challenges of food system. In order to achieve these two important issues, it is necessary to provide the necessary resources for the implementation of research, development and promotion of projects to the stakeholders and organizations.

Call to Action

There is an urgent need to reform agricultural research and policy to better incorporate Indigenous Knowledge and support sustainable, resilient farming practices. By doing so, we can enhance food security, preserve biodiversity, and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

References:

• Ceccarelli, S., & Grando, S. (2007). Decentralized Participatory Plant Breeding: An Approach for Developing Adapted Varieties in Developing Countries. Euphytica, 155(3), 349-361.
• Ceccarelli, S., Grando, S., & Baum, M. (2007). Participatory Plant Breeding: A Case Study. Field Crops Research, 101(1-2), 31-39.
• Ceccarelli, S., Grando, S., & Singh, M. (2011). Participatory plant breeding and institutionalization of farmers’ rights. Agriculture and Food Security, 1(4), 1-13.
• Cleveland, D.A., & Soleri, D. (2007). Farmers, Scientists, and Plant Breeding: A Case Study from the Andes. Agricultural Systems, 94(1), 142-155.
• Joshi, A.K., Sthapit, B.R., & Witcombe, J.R. (2007). Participatory Plant Breeding: Concept, Evolution, and Applications. Plant Breeding Reviews, 29, 101-130.
• Rai, B., & Sherpa, D. (2018). Indigenous agricultural practices and biodiversity conservation in Bhutan: A case study on barley. Agriculture and Human Values, 35(2), 327-337.
• Rerkasem, K. (2007). The Role of Indigenous Knowledge in Rice Farming Systems in the Himalayan Region. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 3(1), 22.
• Witcombe, J.R., Joshi, A.K., & McGregor, C. (2007). Participatory Plant Breeding: A Case Study from the Himalayas. Euphytica, 155(3), 369-377.
• Zencirci, N. (2005). Evolutionary Plant Breeding: A New Approach to Improving Crops. Plant Breeding Reviews, 25, 57-76.
• Zhao, X., Wang, S., & Li, Z. (2014). Participatory Plant Breeding in China: Achievements and Challenges. Field Crops Research, 166, 74-85.
• Zohary, D., & Hopf, M. (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World. Oxford University Press.

* PhD in International Law, Expert Member and Vice Chair of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII).

* PhD in Agroecology, Board Member of the Centre for Sustainable Development and Environment (CENESTA).