Yolanda López-Maldonado, Geography Department, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Germany

Abstract

We live on a dynamic planet that is constantly changing. It is in our mutual interest to observe and understand these changes and the behaviour of the planet’s systems. Indigenous groups around the world have, since time immemorial, provided sophisticated, accurate and precise observation of changes in various earth systems. They have their own world knowledge systems for observing, collecting, classifying, using, recording, disseminating and reviewing information and concepts that explain how the world works. This includes the use of their own protocols, methods and approaches to data collection and monitoring. Examples include the navigational techniques of Indigenous Peoples of the Pacific islands, and the knowledge of the cryosphere and snow processes by Indigenous groups in the Arctic, to name a few. Despite these precise and accurate observations of change, particularly of the hydrological cycle, Indigenous observations and knowledge are often undervalued and not sufficiently included in global monitoring efforts. But the problems affecting the planet cannot be solved by a single discipline or a single knowledge system. It is therefore important to allow Indigenous Peoples to contribute their observations and knowledge. By continuously observing and developing a deep understanding of the Earth, its evolving behavior and characterizing the processes that shape the planet in which we live, Indigenous Peoples have been able to further develop the foundations on which all our societal benefits are built.

1.    Like Gods

Thanks to Western science, humans are now almost like Gods. We have the power to create or destroy life on earth and to alter in seconds important ecological processes that took millions of years to reach an equilibrium. For example, our nature, on which we all depend, has been profoundly shaped by our human activities (Díaz et al., 2019). The magnitude of our negative impacts over ecosystems and the dangerous decline of biodiversity is unparalleled, and negative trends in nature are expected to worsen in the coming decades, leaving humanity insufficient time for action. This escalating environmental crisis has highlighted our vulnerabilities and has also shown that we are often unaware of how we are affected, and how it will continue to affect us, including deepest changes in our interconnectedness with nature. In front of three crises (climate change, pollution and loss of biodiversity), we continue to push planetary boundaries, and it seems that only Western science can help us meet these challenges (UN Environment Program (UNEP), 2020). Since we live on a dynamic planet that is constantly changing due to natural and human processes, it is in our mutual interest to observe and understand these changes and the behaviour of the planet’s systems, to be able to develop solutions. But the problems affecting the planet cannot be solved by a single discipline or a single knowledge system. It is therefore important to allow Indigenous Peoples to contribute their observations and knowledge.

As many sustainability efforts have fallen short (Díaz et al., 2020), research has begun to recognize that the Indigenous People’s knowledge constitutes an essential and key reservoir of ecological information in our efforts to confront and better understand the ecological crisis we face today (Nakashima et al., 2012). This is because, through intergenerational experience and precise observations, Indigenous Peoples were among the first to understand complex processes on Earth, notice changes in natural phenomena (López-Maldonado et al., 2024), and gain critical knowledge to adapt to environmental (Turner et al., 2022) and climate changes (Reyes-García, García-del-Amo, Álvarez-Fernández, et al., 2024; Reyes-García, García-Del-Amo, Porcuna-Ferrer, et al., 2024).

Research has shown, for example, that nature generally declines less rapidly on the lands owned, managed, and occupied by Indigenous Peoples (Garnett et al., 2018). To a large extent, the physical form and habits of the earth’s biodiversity have been preserved through Indigenous People’s knowledges and practices. Indigenous Peoples’ knowledge has been considered essential and relevant when integrated with Western science in our efforts to understand current environmental changes. Indeed, Indigenous Peoples have become central actors in nature protection, as their knowledge contributes to conservation of important ecosystems and biodiversity around the world (e.g., assessing forest, wildlife, etc.) (Hill et al., 2020; McElwee et al., 2020). Similarly, methods, tools and approaches have been developed that attempt to engage with Indigenous knowledge-holders and to reveal such practices (Tengö et al., 2014). Indigenous Peoples and the detailed information on Earth’s features and processes, for example, might contribute to support efforts of new global technologies for monitoring Earth processes and can contribute to further enhance transformations towards sustainability (López-Maldonado et al., 2024).

However, despite all the advances, Indigenous peoples’ knowledge is still overlooked and its independence and validity remain undervalued. Why do we continue to rely on a single source of information to solve such complex environmental problems? Why does humanity continue to take such risks? Why does Western science continue to fail in the search for solutions to the most pressing environmental challenges? Is there any other science to rely on? Is there an Indigenous scientific thought? Some of these questions will be answered in this contribution chapter. This will be done by exploring three overarching questions:

1)    What do we know about Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge? Here I will situate the most common knowledge and conceptions, misconceptions and myths we have about Indigenous Peoples.

2)    What do we probably not know about Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge? Here I will present facts about Indigenous Peoples and talk about the sophisticated thinking of Indigenous groups. I will describe the foundations of this thinking and I will do so from an indigenous perspective.

3)    What do we need to know about Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge? I will discuss the importance of Indigenous knowledge and scientific thought in terms of its accuracy as well as the urgent need to decolonise Earth observations for the benefit of humanity.

This manuscript is not in any way intended to suggest that Western science is bad, good, flawed, etc. I argue instead that various misconceptions and myths still abound around Indigenous knowledge and that there is a need to properly distinguish what is and what is not Indigenous knowledge, and to show its precision and accuracy.

1.1. How do we know what we know about Indigenous Peoples?

We know about Indigenous Peoples from pictorial documents (codices), European accounts, and from cultural, archaeological and historical evidence. The few codices that have survived are an important source of information. However, most of the codices that are preserved today are in a highly deteriorated state, making them difficult to read. Similarly, those sources of information are difficult to interpret since they were written using Indigenous languages that do not exist today or that have been suffering a profound erosion. Other sources are the European accounts of Indigenous People’s traditions collected during colonial times, although these sources were not very accurate, as they exaggerated the life of indigenous peoples, often presenting them as barbaric, while creating a false image of indigenous cultures. Nowadays, these sources are viewed more critically. The cultural pre-colonial and contemporary continuity between Indigenous Peoples is important to understand their cultures and archaeological remains. Archaeological evidence, however, is so fragmented that it is difficult to build a past without uncertainties. Along with past and contemporary records, scientists understand only a portion of our Indigenous knowledge and the Indigenous scientific thought that has been preserved. Consequently, Western science continues to play a substantial role in the analysis, definition and use of indigenous knowledge and has repeatedly triggered divergent perspectives.

Several myths and frequent misconceptions exist due to the failure to fully understand the magnitude and foundations of Indigenous thought. For example, one of the most common myths is that Indigenous knowledge of the past is not the same as that of today. However, all Indigenous groups have in-depth knowledge of their natural and cultural environments that is place-based, specific and associated with human usage, stretching back over many generations. They have been successfully managing landscapes for centuries and continue to do so (Garnett et al., 2018). Knowledge was transmitted orally, main characteristics remain but, as societies, they have also developed and evolved.

Another common myth is that Indigenous knowledge is unprecise and difficult to understand. The truth is that Indigenous knowledge provides information, methods and practices for the conservation and sustainable use of ecosystems & biodiversity. It can enrich our understanding of environmental change (e.g., through ecological assessments and monitoring) (López-Maldonado et al., 2024).

Among the most frequent misconceptions is that we tend to believe that if Indigenous knowledge is lost, nothing will happen because we have Western science. However, as our humanity struggles to deal with current environmental challenges, supporting Indigenous peoples to preserve their knowledge is relevant since more erosion – even small – of it, represents an existential threat to humanity (López-Maldonado et al., 2024). Listening directly to contemporary Indigenous voices is therefore the only primary source we have for educating people about who are Indigenous Peoples, and constitutes the most direct view of our knowledge, cultures and practices.

1.2. What do we know about Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge?

Spread across more than 90 countries on several continents, Indigenous Peoples are today seen as the actors that will enable a transformative change towards sustainability (Turnhout et al., 2012). Their knowledge has been crucial in nature conservation efforts and the way they sustain thriving habitats and biodiversity has been well documented. Indigenous People’s groups account for nearly a quarter of the planet’s land surface and protect about 80% of the world’s most biodiverse areas, despite the fact that they comprise less than 6% of the world’s population (Garnett et al., 2018).

Indigenous Peoples often express deep spiritual connection to nature, reflected in millennia of stewardship, and maintain the healthiest ecosystems of the planet, essential to produce food, freshwater supply and climate stability (Berkes, 2012; McGregor et al., 2020). There are many lessons for the modern world to learn from the ways in which they have understood and coexisted with the environment, especially to explore lessons and principles for living in harmony with nature. Hence, the scientific and policy spheres have been open to examining such non-conventional sources of knowledge and have welcomed dialogue with Indigenous Peoples to co-produce knowledge in different disciplines and thematic areas (Tengö et al., 2017).

In this context, both spheres have undoubtedly recognized Indigenous knowledge and presented it in a way that scientific and policy spheres can understand and connect it to their work. Unfortunately, such processes attempting to emphasise Indigenous dimensions are not made based on Indigenous understandings, conceptions and frameworks and, paradoxically, neglect Indigenous ways of thinking. This method and similar approaches often claim to be inclusive, with guidelines, principles, articulating methods, protocols and approaches to enhance dialogues with Indigenous knowledge-holders (Hill et al., 2020). Despite the long-standing recognition of Indigenous Peoples’ ability to understand and adapt to environmental changes (Latulippe & Klenk, 2020; Reyes-García, García-del-Amo, Álvarez-Fernández, et al., 2024; Reyes-García, García-Del-Amo, Porcuna-Ferrer, et al., 2024), Indigenous knowledge is undergoing rapid change and erosion due to the well-intentioned, but inadequate, attempts of scientific spheres to define and to attempt to integrate Indigenous knowledge with western science (Tallis & Lubchenco, 2014).

A common myth in this regard is, for example, that scientists often believe that Indigenous knowledge is intangible and it is not possible to include it in global monitoring efforts. However, Indigenous knowledge and observations comprises several interrelated levels of analysis ranging from the local level (e.g., precise knowledge of species), to the understanding of complex ecological and earth processes on a global scale (e.g., accurate knowledge of the hydrological cycle). The local and global representation of this information is a valuable resource to validate large scale observations and modeling tools that support scientific research. For example, because the Earth’s dynamics are connected to broader environmental and biological processes, Indigenous knowledge and local observations may include one or more important connections and events of other processes and changes that might go unnoticed on a global scale (Deemer et al., 2017).

Indigenous knowledge has also been described as an information library for dealing with complex systems (Berkes, 2009) that can help connect the present with the past and restore resilience (Gunderson & Holling, 2002). Indigenous knowledge is based on observations over a restricted and detailed geography (Gadgil et al., 1993). But Indigenous knowledge not only involves accurate locally-based information, but also global processes (Finney, 1998). For example, Indigenous groups have been able to accurately make measurements, observations and predictions of natural phenomena (many of them have not even occurred today) such as equinoxes, solstices, etc., and they did so without the technology we have today. In practice, however, despite such precise and accurate observations, Indigenous observations and knowledge are often undervalued and not sufficiently included in global monitoring efforts as their precision and accuracy are always discarded.

This is perhaps because policy and scientific spheres have not been able to understand the different components of Indigenous knowledge (see Figure 1).

1.3. What is it we probably don’t know about Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge?

Indigenous Peoples have their own systems of knowing the world for observing, collecting, categorizing, using, recording, disseminating and revising information and concepts that explain how the world works (Johnson et al., 2014). They have their own protocols, methods and approaches for data collection and monitoring (Chilisa, 2012; Deloria, 1999; Kovach, 2009; Lambert, 2014; Smith, 2012; Wilson, 2008). All this is a key characteristic of a particular scientific thought and it has been described as a bound up with a sense of community (Cajete, 2000; Johnson et al., 2014). In practice, it embraces the spiritual and moral relationship side of human-nature interactions. Fundamentally, Indigenous Peoples were among the first observers of the arrival of Europeans, but these native endeavours were soon dominated by Western paradigms (Kean, 2019; López-Maldonado et al., 2024; Makgoba, 2020).

For example, Indigenous Peoples and other native groups studies included not only listing and categorizing flora, fauna, etc. but also precise and accurate knowledge of medicinal properties, system dynamics, behavioural changes of species, the sky, the planets, etc. (Gon & Winter, 2019). In other words, most of the supposedly early European discoveries and studies had already been carried out by Indigenous and native peoples using their own methods of scientific inquiry. They have been able to accurately, and continue to do so, make measurements, observations and predictions of natural phenomena (many of them have not even occurred today) such as equinoxes, solstices, etc., and they did so without the technology we have today (López-Maldonado et al., 2024). It is clear that, with some differences, the practice of Indigenous science thus has implications for research and methods and different approaches to nature (see Table 1).

Millennia of experimentation and empirical observations of Indigenous Peoples has led them to a sophisticated understanding of the natural environment, the cosmos and use of technologies (e.g. fire) (Kimmerer & Lake, 2001; Usher, 2000). This information can provide valuable insights for better understanding complex Earth processes (e.g. precise knowledge of snow cover, ice properties, weather changes, etc), and could help support global efforts for monitoring earth changes (López-Maldonado et al., 2024).

For example, specific observations have been compiled by Indigenous Peoples from the Mayan region of Yucatán, Mexico. To survive in a place where water was scarce or difficult to obtain, the Maya had to organize themselves to design and to manage their water resources, including water bodies and natural and human-made reservoirs (Lopez-Maldonado, 2019; Lopez-Maldonado & Berkes, 2017). They developed a complex system of water management dependent on water collection and storage. The hydraulic system was tailored to the biophysical conditions and adaptively engineered to the evolving needs of a growing population(Lopez-Maldonado, 2021). Similar to modern water management practices, the Mayas directed, stored and transported water with canals, dams, sluices and berms. To filter water, they used several natural resources, starting with quartz sand and zeolite sand — both of which were only available in distant areas (Lucero, 2023). Thousands of years ago, when most of the Spanish arrived in Yucatán, the Maya people possessed specific and precise knowledge and skills to study they components of the hydrological cycle and natural phenomena with precision. However, much of this and similar information remains undervalued in current global water monitoring. allowing for better decisions to be made at local to global scales (López-Maldonado et al., 2024).

There is thus ample evidence of sophisticated earth observations by Indigenous groups around the world dating back to time immemorial. Further examples include the navigation techniques of Indigenous Peoples in the Pacific islands (Mulalap et al., 2020), and knowledge of the cryosphere and snow processes by Arctic Indigenous groups (Deemer et al., 2017), among many others (Table 2).

However, another common falsehood that prevails in scientific and policy spheres is that Indigenous knowledge must be combined with Western science. But this commonly-accepted idea can be false and lead to serious ‘erosion of knowledge’, particularly in groups that have lost important amounts of knowledge and language.

This is because combining different knowledge systems to solve environmental problems towards sustainability is rooted in “inclusive” participation. This ‘perhaps’ does not lead to construct new knowledge at its maximum potential since the instruments and tools come from methodologies and approaches that do not respect Indigenous thinking. Yet, “romanticization” of Indigenous knowledge and its manipulation to fit external agendas can create bigger problems and, hence, important environmental knowledge can be lost.

1.1. What do we need to know?

In general, and for too long, Indigenous People’s knowledge has been and continues to be absent from scientific and political debates on how best to make decisions to protect nature. Indigenous knowledge continues to suffer from historical erosion and this may have consequences that undermine the vitality of important ecosystems, while compromising society’s ability to meet global sustainability goals. Certainly, most scientific and political approaches fall short when attempting to understand and respect the integrity of Indigenous knowledge and its epistemological and ontological foundations. It is therefore important to take into account the following aspects:

1.    Indigenous science is very old and exists long before, compared to Western science. If we look at the complex processes of the systems on the planet that Indigenous Peoples were able to understand, we can say that Western science is still at a very early stage. However, Western science, in a process of domination, reconfigured other ways of knowing under different guises, in order to obscure them or make them inferior, including Indigenous knowledge.

2.    Indigenous peoples observed and analysed nature phenomena, used proper methods, tools, frameworks for research enquiry and, on the basis of this, formulated universal laws. Such tools and approaches are rooted on a different paradigm. This paradigm is not opposed to the epistemics of Western science and is not an anti-scientific stance. Rather, we argue here, as previously stated by Santos (2016), “it is a call to modern science to look at other ways of knowing for solving current environmental challenges, specifically to the science of Indigenous Peoples”.

3.    Indigenous knowledge involves four different levels to understand life cycles, structure, function and evolutionary processes within nature. All those levels are important and interconnected. However, Indigenous Peoples gave particular attention to worldviews and values for their relation with nature (Acosta, 2013; Gudynas, 2011; Gudynas & Acosta, 2011). It is precisely this component that modern science does not make sense of. This being a key component of the expansion of capitalism due to the lack of an environmental ethic and a society devoid of values.

4.    Despite having their own Non-Western scientific methods for research inquiry, Indigenous Peoples also place an essential value on worldviews. However, their worldview remains misunderstood and misrepresented. Thus, often the way Indigenous Peoples report their observations is not empirically useful for policy and scientific spheres since they ascribe meaning to spirituality and supernatural stories. This has led to Indigenous knowledge being vaguely addressed.

5.    Indigenous science is equally rigorous and as precise as Western science, but Indigenous science originates in completely different contexts than Western and non-indigenous spheres are used to (Gewin, 2021). Western societies are characterised by a mechanistic way of perceiving nature and by approaches that ignore or disregard other forms of knowledge because they are perceived as myths, legends or implausible. For example, Western science often tends to ignore rich oral traditions in many Indigenous cultures which contain ecological information embedded in songs, origin stories, and ancestral sayings, which are crucial to understand nature.

6.    Western science works in a completely different time scale because natural processes, humans, organisms, ecosystems work on cycles and a lot of time is needed to understand them. Understanding and adapt to changes requires time.

7.    Earth’s dynamics are connected to broader environmental and biological processes. Indigenous knowledge and observations may include one or more important connections and events of other processes and changes that might go unnoticed on a global scale (Deemer et al., 2017).

8.    Scholarly and policy circles must include Indigenous knowledge, observations and understandings of the environment into their measuring and monitoring processes.

As illustrated by these points, the recognition of Indigenous science requires an understanding of non-Western approaches and ways of knowing and conceptions from Western and non-Western ways of thinking. This means that the growing interest of scientists in focusing on colonialism and decolonisation without engaging in a critique of capitalism and patriarchy distracts from the problem. Allowing Indigenous knowledge to play a key role will improve tremendously our understanding and overall representation of earth processes into global models. Instead of maintaining Western science as the only source of knowledge, we should move closer to those knowledge systems that have been on earth for much longer and whose understanding of natural processes is more holistic.

2.    Acknowledgments

I would like to express my gratitude to all Indigenous Peoples who, with their knowledge and observations of planetary processes, have succeeded in preserving important ecosystems that sustain life on earth. My gratitude to Dr. Nigel Crawhall for his valuable guidance.

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