DOI: 10.65398/YDZI7452
Tørris Jæger, Rainforest Foundation, Norway
Indigenous-led Solutions and the Extensive Corridors Approach – At the Heart of Climate and Nature Action
1. Introduction
With global warming and the escalating loss of biodiversity threatening the planet’s life support systems, the need for effective and lasting solutions has never been greater. Over the past three decades, there has been a growing awareness of the critical role of tropical rainforests as the linchpin of these two interlinked global challenges. Although they cover a mere 6% of the Earth’s terrestrial surface, they harbor up to 80% of all animal and plant species and contain about 50% of all carbon stored in live biomass.
At the same time, the role of indigenous peoples as stewards of natural landscapes, who have contributed to the preservation and enrichment of ecosystems for thousands of years, has also gained recognition. Research consistently shows that areas stewarded by indigenous peoples continue to be among the best-preserved natural environments on Earth, harboring greater biodiversity and storing more carbon per hectare than most areas under other forms of management and protection. Their deep knowledge of the natural world combined with a holistic approach to its stewardship, is at the heart of their success.
Perhaps more than others, indigenous peoples tend to perceive and treat the environment in which they live as much more than the sum of its parts. Their holistic relationship to their ancestral territories – often vast and contiguous natural landscapes – harmonizes well with the preservation of natural environments which, in both their spatial and symbiotic interconnectedness, produce the ecosystem services on which we all depend. Efforts to halt the ongoing destruction of our natural world must, to a much larger degree, draw on these realities and align the financial and strategic support for the conservation of nature accordingly.
2. Indigenous peoples’ knowledge of tropical rainforests
The extreme diversity of plants and animal species in a tropical rainforest is characterized by a small number of individual species per geographical unit. Plants and animals are widely scattered. This is the opposite of the African savannah, where we find vast grasslands with huge herds of antelopes, gazelles, and buffaloes. In the Amazon, almost all animals are solitary or live in pairs. An exception is one of the two species of wild boar, which can roam in groups of more than 100 animals. The same dispersion applies to most tree species – including those that bear edible fruit. There can easily be hundreds or even thousands of meters between two trees of the same species.
This basic ecological characteristic means that it requires in-depth knowledge and a very advanced, versatile resource strategy to live well in this complex environment. Scientists have, time and again, been impressed by the intimate knowledge and high level of observational skills they encounter when visiting traditional rainforest communities.
The same admiration applies to the extensive knowledge of the medicinal properties of a variety of plant stems, roots, leaves and barks that is often found. And although the untrained eye perceives an intact stretch of rainforest as “virgin” or untouched, the botanist or ethnobotanist has long ago concluded that large parts of the vast Amazon rainforest have been carefully managed or manipulated over generations, so that the occurrence of trees useful to humans and animals is higher than if it had been left to itself.
Societies and peoples who live in the rainforest and have adapted to it over generations are connected to their natural environment in ways that urban, so-called modern people may completely overlook or fail to understand. The environment in which they feel at home is the forest. The stories they have heard from their grandparents are rooted in their forest environment. Their mythologies and fairy tales come from the forest. Their sacred places are there. We may say that where the so-called modern man is concerned with the value, or potential value, of the forest and the resources it contains, forest peoples value the forest as home, as the basis for a good life and as the foundation for their future.
We should neither forget nor underestimate the many social values found in traditional rainforest societies: Reciprocity, autonomy, no or minimal hierarchy, plenty of time for social activities, a high degree of individual freedom and a warm, safe and unconstrained upbringing of children. This is not to say that everything is better in traditional rainforest societies, but we should not take the opposite for granted either. Modern society and modern life lack many of the qualities found in traditional rainforest societies, and it might do us all good to be open to mutual learning and to strive for interaction based on equality.
Indigenous forest peoples have proven that they are capable of living well in an extremely complex and therefore challenging environment, and we should rejoice when they continue to choose their own alternative models for their future – even after they have become more familiar with the modern, industrialized and globalized societies that surround their forest areas.
3. Preventing fragmentation and restoring connectivity
When humans cut up natural landscapes into increasingly smaller pieces, plants and animals struggle to survive. Habitat fragmentation is one of the greatest threats to the world’s biodiversity. In forests, it can reduce the richness of animal and plant species by up to 75%, depending on the size of the fragments.
The areas of a forest that are within 1 km of the forest edge are less productive than interior forests, with increased tree mortality and lower biodiversity, carbon storage, and water recycling capacity.[i] The closer to the edge, the stronger this “edge effect”. As contiguous forests are progressively fragmented into islands of smaller forest patches, mainly through infrastructure development and agricultural expansion, the impact of the edge effect on the entire forest biome increases. Today, more than 70% of the world’s forests are less than 1 km from a forest edge, and almost 20% are less than 100 meters from the edge.[ii] In the Brazilian Amazon, humans are creating up to 50,000 km of new forest edges every year.[iii]
The ability of our planet to provide vital ecosystem services is closely linked to the spatial connectivity of its natural landscapes. Large, connected biomes enable the natural processes of migration, gene flow, adaptation, and nutrient recycling, contributing to genetic variability and ecosystem resilience to environmental change.[iv] Therefore, climate and biodiversity goals can only be achieved if conservation efforts are more strongly focused on the integral management of large blocks of contiguous natural environments and on restoring ecosystem connectivity where it has been lost.
The connection of indigenous peoples with the natural environment in which they live has a deep, holistic dimension, embedded in their cultural, spiritual, and social practices. Their worldview often recognizes the interconnectedness of all elements of a natural landscape and views the land not as a commodity, but as a complex living entity with which they have an intimate relationship. This provides a comprehensive foundation that is particularly conducive to effective conservation of large interconnected natural landscapes.
4. Promising initiatives and solutions that all need additional support and upscaling
4.1 Territorial corridors of isolated indigenous peoples in Brazil and Peru
The border region of Peru and Brazil is the location of the two largest contiguous areas in the world inhabited by indigenous peoples who live have chosen to live without contact or drastically limit contact with the outside world.
Combined, the two territorial corridors cover 250,000 km2, an area larger than the United Kingdom, and consist almost entirely of pristine tropical rainforest. They are of true world heritage quality, both culturally and ecologically. There is still virtually no infrastructural development here, and deforestation and degradation are very low. Nevertheless, both areas are under rapidly increasing pressure from a range of legal and illegal activities such as logging, mining, and road building.
Combined, these areas store a total of 26 billion tons of CO2, equivalent to the United States’ emissions over 5 years. At the same time, they sequester 50 million tons of CO2 every year – equivalent to Norway’s total annual greenhouse gas emissions. The high degree of forest intactness and the remote location in the western Amazon basin indicate that these areas harbor a richer biodiversity than most other places on earth.
Isolated indigenous peoples (also referred to as uncontacted tribes) are entire ethnic groups or parts thereof that have chosen to not make contact with people from the surrounding society. They present a very high degree of autonomy and are neither familiar with nor integrated into the culture, laws, and regulations of the nation-state in which they are located. They also tend to avoid contact with other neighboring indigenous peoples.
Contact with outsiders carries the risk of being exposed to infectious diseases against which they have no immunological resistance. A common cold or flu can easily turn into a deadly epidemic, which can wipe out more than 50% of the population within a terrifying short period. Any major damage to the environment upon which they depend and have stewarded sustainably for generations may lead to starvation, forced migration, and violent conflict with neighboring peoples. The same is true if the interconnectedness of their vast territories is broken.
The catastrophic history of forced contact with outsiders has made it clear that the best way to protect the right of isolated indigenous peoples to life and health, culture, land and self-determination is to respect their decision to live without contact with our modern, industrialized society. This is also enshrined in law in Peru and public policy in Brazil.
After decades of research, conducted mainly by indigenous organizations in Peru and the National Government Agency for Indigenous Peoples in Brazil (FUNAI), it was clear that these unique indigenous societies are stewards of incredibly large and contiguous rainforest territories. Their historical presence here and close relationship with the forest are the very reasons for the continued existence of these two well-preserved rainforest areas. Securing their basic human rights is therefore tantamount to preserving the rainforest ecology in their territories and preventing the fragmentation of some of the largest contiguous intact tropical rainforests left on earth.
In a groundbreaking demonstration of solidarity and commitment to safeguarding the rights and territories of the isolated indigenous peoples, indigenous organizations from Peru and Brazil have joined forces to create and implement a pioneering initiative. At the core of the strategy lies the involvement of the hundreds of local communities who inhabit the buffer zones of these corridors and where they border and share territory with their isolated brothers and sisters.
Through strengthened local governance and tenure rights, and enhanced territorial management and protection, the local communities and their representative organizations will form an effective shield against the emerging threats – both as on-the-ground barriers against destructive intrusion, and as grassroot alliances strong enough to influence political decisions and private companies.
The initiative emphasizes broad cross-sectoral cooperation between relevant state and civil society actors and requires financial support in line with its huge spatial and strategic dimensions. Alone, the protection of these unique territorial corridors represents 0.6% of the entire global 30x30 target of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
4.2 Contiguous Pygmy Indigenous Peoples’ territories in the Democratic Republic of Congo
Central Africa harbors the world’s second-largest contiguous tropical rainforest, of which 58% is located in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).
Among the many ethnic groups inhabiting the region, the indigenous peoples commonly known as Pygmies (and self-identified as Batwa, Baka, Mbuti, etc.) are characterized by their deep historical and spiritual ties to the forest. According to anthropologist Jerome Lewis of Britain’s Royal Anthropological Institute, the Pygmy indigenous peoples are direct descendants of the very first people to colonize the Central African rainforest some 100,000 years ago. They have played a pivotal role in shaping the cultural mosaic of this remarkable forest biome. As custodians of ancestral knowledge and stewards of vast rainforest landscapes, Pygmy communities are integral to the preservation of culture, knowledge, biodiversity and the interconnectedness of the vast Central African rainforest.
Until recently, little was known about the total extent of the land inhabited and used by Pygmy indigenous peoples in DRC. This knowledge gap, combined with a complete lack of official acknowledgement of indigenous peoples in DRC, have prevented progress in the recognition of Pygmy indigenous peoples’ right to their traditional land. To counteract this, the indigenous organization “Dynamique des Groupes des Peuples Autochtones” (DGPA) have long advocated for a national legislation in favour of Pygmy indigenous peoples’ land rights and has carried out an extensive, collaborative mapping initiative to create a comprehensive atlas that provide evidence for and visualizes the true location and extent of the vast territories of these ancient indigenous groups.
The atlas is a scientific tool presenting the history, way of life, habits, and traditions of the Pygmy indigenous peoples throughout the national territory of DRC. Rich in relevant and reliable information derived from participatory fieldwork with indigenous Pygmy communities and other stakeholders, this tool contains monographic data and maps of indigenous Pygmy locations superimposed on other allocations throughout the country.
The maps provide geographical reference points for visualizing the traditional areas of Pygmy indigenous peoples in the DRC in relation to natural biotopes located in their traditional territories, and areas of extractive or sectoral activity, with a view to understanding legal, social, economic, environmental and cultural problems created by the superimposition of the rights of different users over their ancestral lands. They show the location of indigenous Pygmy territories in relation to protected areas, forest concessions, intact forests, mining permits, petroleum permits, and vegetation types.
In the wake of the huge victory of the approval of the 2022 national Law for Pygmy indigenous peoples’ land rights, DGPA and allies have elaborated a comprehensive strategy for the legal recognition and sustainable management of the Pygmy indigenous peoples’ territories that have already been mapped in the atlas. In total, this unprecedented tenure initiative will cover at least 240, 000 km2 of contiguous tropical rainforest in DRC, and this is just the first phase. The mapping and advocacy for recognition of Pygmy indigenous peoples’ territories in DRC will continue and it represent the most significant contribution towards securing the vital interconnectivity of the vast Central African rainforest.
By mapping the contiguous territories of the Pygmy indigenous peoples, the aim is to provide a foundation for evidence-based advocacy, promoting awareness and collaboration for the conservation of DRC’s vast contiguous rainforests by supporting the continued existence and prosperity of the indigenous Pygmy populations on their traditional territories.
4.3 Eastern Indonesia Forest Facility
Indonesian non-governmental organizations EcoNusa and Bentara are working closely with indigenous and other local communities in Eastern Indonesia, focusing on Papua and the Maluku islands. Culturally and linguistically extremely diverse, with more than 500 languages spoken, Eastern Indonesia also contains Asia’s largest tracts of intact, contiguous, biologically mega-diverse rainforest – which is why this area is also coveted by all sorts of economic interest groups.
Together with local indigenous communities, these two NGOs have managed, from 2019 to 2023, to facilitate the participatory mapping of 4,520 km2 of community lands, essential for obtaining recognition of their ancestral land rights. 120 village natural resource management plans have been submitted to the relevant authorities during this period, and a series of ecologically sustainable income opportunities have been developed. Ongoing community-based income-generating activities range from the cultivation and commercialization of a series of spices, like the Banda nutmeg from Maluku and Negeri nutmeg from Papua, cloves, cinnamon, and vanilla, to the gathering of the very nutritious almond-like Kenari nuts, and the production of high-quality Ransiki cocoa and organic Papuan coffee. USD 1,2 million have been distributed to 45 indigenous communities through the EcoFund created within the project (see EcoNusa website)[v], including to 13 local cooperatives. The social enterprise Kobumi (see Kobumi website)[vi] has been created, marketing the products from the 13 member cooperatives through a joint attractive products website, where orders can be placed.
We all know that the island of New Guinea is essential for the future of the mega-diverse rainforest of Asia and Oceania, and it is thus very encouraging to see that the project has been instrumental in having 3,700 km2 of irregular and illegal palm-oil concessions cancelled during this period. This means that some 60 million tons of carbon continue to be stored on lands that would otherwise have become oil palm plantations. An area this size, if completely deforested to allow for plantation activities, would have emitted some 220 million tons of CO2 – or equivalent to what my country, Norway, emits in five and a half years.
Investing in such initiatives is essential, and it does two things. It avoids destruction of nature and local peoples’ livelihoods, exacerbating the climate and biodiversity crises, and it invigorates local solutions for creating social development while maintaining the forest environment that is the foundation for their culture and way of life. All of these economic and social initiatives are viable and working – but they could easily be scaled up manyfold through increased support.
4.4 The Pará-Amapá Corridor in a Mosaic Context
The Mosaic of Western Amapá and Northern Pará (called “Eastern Amazon Mosaic”) covers part of the Guianas Plateau, a region known for its rich biodiversity and sociocultural diversity. It covers almost 123,000 km2 and is composed of three indigenous territories and six conservation units. Recognized in 2013 by the Brazilian Ministry of Environment, it is one of 17 officially recognized federal mosaics in Brazil, and the first (and still the only one) to include Indigenous territories.
The legislation on mosaics in Brazil, LEI FEDERAL Nº 9.985-00 Art. 26, was approved in the year 2000 and defines the following: “When there is a set of conservation units of different categories or not, close, juxtaposed or overlapping, and other public or private protected areas, constituting a mosaic, the management of the set must be carried out in an integrated and participatory manner, considering its distinct conservation objectives, in order to reconcile the presence of biodiversity, the valorization of sociodiversity and sustainable development in the regional context.”
Although the indigenous territories that make up parts of the mosaic are different from the other units, they form part of a single territorial mosaic, with the common goal of conserving the rainforest and its vast interconnectedness. To achieve this, it is vital that all land units in the mosaic be managed and administrated in an integrated manner. The management of mosaics is monitored by an Advisory Council, which in the case of the “Eastern Amazon Mosaic” is made up of 30 chairs – 14 of them governmental and 16 of them from civil society. It is within this council that decisions and discussions take place.
The Mosaic Council promotes public discussion forums and common management and protection strategies, and meetings between community groups such as youth – many of whom have become community leaders or work in conservation efforts. These strategies and meetings result in actions on forest conservation, contamination and forest destruction from mining, oil and gas exploration and the impacts of hydroelectric dams.
The Mosaic also has an executive secretariat, which is responsible for organizing meetings and making the necessary arrangements between the meetings. In times before the Bolsonaro government, the council had established working groups to take care of specific issues, such as environmental monitoring, where more technical discussions and referrals between government bodies could take place.
The “Eastern Amazon Mosaic” is a success story on collaborative efforts between different stakeholders to conserve a large, interconnected rainforest corridor backed by legislation. Unfortunately, it has not been followed-up by public commitments on financing. The financial backing required to operate at the scale envisioned by the mosaic legislation has been lacking and is mostly reliant on private donors. Recognizing the substantial positive impact of such collaborative conservation efforts on both global biodiversity and climate agendas, there emerges a pressing need to channel a greater portion of public and private funds dedicated to these issues toward such initiatives. This strategic allocation of resources is essential to sustain and expand the success story, ensuring the conservation of extensive rainforest corridors and their broader contributions to environmental and climate change mitigation outputs.
4.5 Forests for Life
Although the essential role of forests in reducing man-made climate change and protecting biological diversity has been increasingly recognized by decision-makers over the last 10 to 15 years, the particular importance of intact, high-integrity forests continues to escape the needed attention. All forests are important, but the areas of large, contiguous, intact forest landscapes are crucial for upholding ecosystem services that are vital parts of the Earth’s life-support systems: climate regulation, production and distribution of rainfall, maintenance of biological diversity, and the removal of massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to be stored as above- and below-ground carbon in vegetation and soil.
It is estimated that without the active role of high integrity forests in removing CO2 from the atmosphere, the world would already have been 0.5°C hotter than it is today. And these forests also provide livelihood opportunities and natural resources for large populations, not least indigenous peoples and local communities who live in and manage some 35% of the world’s most intact forests. Despite their essential functions, the main blocks of high integrity forests have declined by 12% between 2000 and 2020, and they are increasingly being threatened by fragmentation, encroachment, and degradation. Increasing the awareness of the unique importance of these large, intact forest landscapes – and thus prioritizing their protection in a real, effective and systematic way – is urgently needed.
Financing mechanisms in a climate context have tended to reward the reduction of deforestation and its associated climate gas emissions in countries and areas with high historical deforestation, and few financial incentives have been created for stimulating and rewarding the protection of high integrity forests. In order to enhance awareness, uplift priorities, develop new finance mechanisms and upscale effective protective measures on the ground, Wildlife Conservation Society, Rainforest Foundation Norway, UNDP, World Resources Institute, and Re:wild created the Forests for Life partnership in 2019. Each with different characteristics and strengths, the Forests for Life partners unite in making the vital role of high integrity forest known to decision-makers, develop and test new financial incentives for maintaining forest integrity, and collaborate on the ground where possible and feasible.
4.6 Indigenous-led funds and funding mechanisms
Given the essential historical and present-day role of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IP&LCs) in managing and protecting huge forest areas and their biodiversity, it is both striking and outrageous how little funding, general support and investments that have been directed at supporting and strengthening traditional forest stewards. The indigenous movement has complained and presented demands for years.
Although numerous studies have documented the effectiveness of indigenous peoples and traditional forest communities in preventing deforestation and maintaining biodiversity through their collective management of ancestral territories, particularly when those territorial rights are officially recognized, only minimal fractions of public and private investments in climate mitigation and biodiversity preservation reach these peoples and communities. As documented by the Falling Short report in 2021, less than 1% of the official development assistance for climate change mitigation and adaptation was dedicated to Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities’ tenure and forest management in tropical countries. And of this less than 1%, only a fraction actually reaches communities on the ground – as only 17% of the projects in this category even mentions the name of an IPLC organization in their implementation documents.
The encouraging news is that more and more indigenous organizations and initiatives are presently developing their own, indigenous-led funds and funding mechanisms. The Global Alliance of Territorial Communities (GATC) has launched the Shandia Vision, focused on ensuring that indigenous peoples and local communities have access to direct funding for actions that combat climate change, conserve biodiversity and sustain their rights and self-determined development in their own territories, based on identity and traditional knowledge. The Alliance, with member organizations based in Indonesia, Central Africa, Central and South America, are advocating strongly for a fundamental reform in funding streams, monitoring progress, requesting more adequate and meaningful donor requirements, strengthening local capacity for financial management, and developing their own funds. The Nusantara Fund in Indonesia and the Mesoamerican Territorial Fund are examples of this.
Likewise, national, regional and local funds or funding mechanisms are being developed and discussed in many corners of the world. The Podaali Fund, created by the indigenous umbrella organization for the Brazilian Amazon (COIAB), covers all of the Brazilian Amazon and is quite advanced. And so is the regional indigenous fund for Rio Negro (FIRN), managed by the indigenous organization FOIRN. In the DRC, a special funding mechanism, the IPLC Forest Facility, has been created exactly for facilitating and increasing funding to local communities in forest areas. In Asia, the Indigenous Peoples of Asia Solidarity Fund (IPAS), meant to support indigenous peoples in all of Asia, has developed a solid governance structure and an ambitious 2024-2028 strategy, and is presently seeking funding. And there are many more at national levels, like the Kehati Foundation and the Credit Union Pancur Kasih in Indonesia.
The 1.7-billion-dollar pledge made by the so-called Forest Tenure Funders Group during the UNFCCC climate conference in Glasgow in 2021 to support the advancement of Indigenous and community forest tenure, marked a breakthrough for this agenda, and funders are presently busy delivering on their pledges while investigating the best and most effective ways for reaching the ground. The key task now, for donors, environmental organizations and philanthropists in general, is to challenge their own preconceptions, traditional routines and bureaucratic practices, and engaging directly with local communities and their representative organizations, prioritizing results on the ground over formalities.
5. Conclusion
The protection and sustainable management of large contiguous natural landscapes to prevent ecosystem degradation and fragmentation stand as a critical imperative for the preservation of global biodiversity and the mitigation of climate change. This report highlights the crucial role indigenous peoples play as stewards of tropical rainforests, drawing attention to the delicate balance between extensive interconnected natural landscapes, biodiversity preservation, climate change mitigation, and traditional knowledge and practices.
The immense importance of extensive interconnected tropical rainforests must be unequivocally embedded in the national plans aimed at achieving the 2030 targets outlined in the Global Biodiversity Framework. The fulfillment of a nation’s commitment to target 1, “to bring the loss of areas of high biodiversity importance, including ecosystems of high ecological integrity, close to zero by 2030, while respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities”, necessitates a comprehensive and uncompromising approach to safeguarding tropical rainforests in their entirety. Any national plan for the preservation of biodiversity by a tropical forest country that overlooks this reality is inherently poised for failure. It is simply not possible to end, or even significantly reduce, the loss of biodiversity by conserving bits and pieces of otherwise vast, contiguous tropical rainforests or any other high-productive natural landscape. Which is also why substantial international financial support is needed, if we are to succeed.
The intricate relationship between biological diversity and climate change underscores the need for an approach that acknowledges the mutual dependence inherent in the two global frameworks addressing these critical issues. To attain meaningful progress, funding levels must be commensurate with the urgency and scale of the challenges. It will require a multi-faceted approach that combines public and private funding, international cooperation, and innovative financial mechanisms aligned with a holistic approach that can secure vast contiguous natural landscapes.
This comprehensive strategy, aligned with evolving scientific insights and respect for indigenous peoples’ rights, holds the key to fostering a resilient and balanced coexistence between humanity and the intricate web of life on our planet.
References
[i] Nunes, M.H., Vaz, M.C., Camargo, J.L.C. et al. Edge effects on tree architecture exacerbate biomass loss of fragmented Amazonian forests. Nat Commun 14, 8129 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44004-5 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-44004-5; Riutta, T., Clack, H., Crockatt, M. et al. Landscape-Scale Implications of the Edge Effect on Soil Fauna Activity in a Temperate Forest. Ecosystems 19, 534–544 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-015-9939-9 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10021-015-9939-9;
Numata, I., Khand, K., Kjaersgaard, J., et al. Forest evapotranspiration dynamics over a fragmented forest landscape under drought in southwestern Amazonia. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 306, 108446 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2021.108446 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168192321001295; Laurance, W.F., Nascimento, H.E., Laurance, S.G., et al. Habitat fragmentation, variable edge effects, and the landscape-divergence hypothesis. PLoS One. 10.1371 (2007) https://doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001017 https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0001017; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1995757/#:~:text=Edge%2Drelated%20tree%20mortality%20is,light%2C%20and%20wind%20from%20outside
[iii] Broadbent, E., Asner, G., Keller, M., et al. Forest fragmentation from deforestation and selective logging in the Brazilian Amazon. Biological Conservation. 141,1745-1757 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.04.024
[iv] Schlaepfer, D.R., Braschler, B., Rusterholz, H.P., et al. Genetic effects of anthropogenic habitat fragmentation on remnant animal and plant populations: a meta-analysis. Ecosphere 9(10):e02488 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2488; https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ecs2.2488#:~:text=Anthropogenic%20habitat%20fragmentation%20leads%20to,genetic%20variation%20of%20remnant%20populations.
Haddad, N.M., Brudvig, L.A., Clobert, J., et al. Habitat fragmentation and its lasting impact on Earth’s ecosystems. Science advances, 1(2), e1500052 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500052; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4643828/#:~:text=A%20synthesis%20of%20fragmentation%20experiments,biomass%20and%20altering%20nutrient%20cycles.
[v] EcoNusa website: https://econusa.id/en/ecofund/
[vi] Kobumi website: https://kobumi.id/