Nigel Crawhall, Chief of Section, Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems Programme, Natural Sciences Sector, UNESCO

Introduction

The United Nations benefits from an engaged relationship with Indigenous Peoples around the globe, through which it can share and reflect on different pathways and cosmovisions of what a sustainable world could look like. The attention given to Indigenous Peoples’ human rights has accelerated attention to the unique and diverse knowledge systems which Indigenous Peoples hold in relation to their territories across the globe in highly diverse biomes, altitudes and latitudes.

This article provides an overview of the diverse ways in which Indigenous Peoples’ knowledge systems help shape the United Nations and key platforms and mechanisms that are currently supporting this transformative process. The article also attempts to show how multiple knowledge systems, including Indigenous knowledge, can work together where there is a full commitment to human rights and ethical conduct.

To understand the emerging and dynamic relationship between the United Nations system and Indigenous Peoples, with a particular focus on the recognition, mobilisation and application of Indigenous knowledge systems to the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity, and adaptive responses to climate instability, it helps to first get an overview of the overall legal and developmental relationship between the UN and Indigenous Peoples.

The current model of resource extraction and consumption to supply economic models of development which are not sustainable is placing the world’s most exposed communities and many non-human species at significant risk. A new paradigm for sustainability, which considers economics, social, cultural and biological diversity can help us transform our relationship with nature and with each other. Wealth, good health, a good quality of life, peace and the ability to shape one’s own destiny are all possible without having to borrow so heavily from future generations and place humanity and other species on the planet at unnecessary risk.

The relationship between the United Nations and Indigenous Peoples has a history dating back to the time of the League of Nations.[1] As the global platform for organising multilateral relations, the UN was mandated by its members to navigate the complex process of decolonisation which was closely associated with the end of World War II and the establishment of a new world order, the promotion of peaceful coexistence and the elaboration and application of international law. Two founding principles of the UN were the sovereignty of the state and universal human rights.

The characteristics of Indigenous Peoples, being social, cultural, spiritual and sometimes fully fledged political entities before the formation of the modern nation state contribute to a dynamic tension between national sovereignty and the right of peoples to represent themselves in multilateralism and advocate for a multilateral framework to address forms of discrimination and rights violations. Whereas the UN was able to recognise newly decolonised states as full sovereign members, it would take several decades for a new multilateral rights framework to emerge that could recognise Indigenous Peoples distinctly from other national groupings, collectivities or individual rights holders. This instrument which was eventually negotiated was the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). It took twenty-five years to negotiate, culminating in its near universal approval on 13 September 2007.[2]

With the adoption of the UNDRIP by the UN General Assembly a new door was opened for UN entities to engage more directly with Indigenous Peoples and to explore many of the world’s most pressing issues of rights, sustainable development, resource governance, cultural and linguistic diversity, and the right to propose alternative views on development, all of these being urgent themes at the close of the 20^th century and as we transitioned into the 21st century.

UNDRIP had been preceded and influenced by other influential multilateral mechanisms and instruments, including the ILO Convention 169 and the three ‘Rio Conventions’, the trio of environmental treaty instruments crafted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The three Rio conventions, on biodiversity, climate change and desertification respectively, benefited from the presence of Indigenous Peoples during negotiations and as such, established the first major frameworks to recognise that Indigenous knowledge, practices and innovations with regards to the environment would be of significance in achieving sustainability.

In 2002, the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) established an intersectoral platform to study and promote Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems, known as the LINKS programme, which eventually became an integral part of the Natural Sciences Sector, and which engaged in a wide range of projects including helping other UN processes, mechanisms and entities understand the importance of engaging with Indigenous Peoples as expert knowledge holders.

Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge systems

There has been an incremental growth in the attention of the United Nations (UN) system, its entities and its Member States to the relevance of Indigenous knowledge systems in addressing and where possible solving some of the most complex and pressing modern issues about our understanding and relationship with biodiversity, biomes and ecosystems. To understand what is meant by Indigenous knowledge systems, it is helpful to first understand the specific way in which the UN recognises certain communities as Indigenous Peoples.

The term ‘Indigenous Peoples’ has not been defined in a fixed way by the UN. A seminal document to help set out a global framework for the United Nations was crafted by José R. Martínez Cobo, commonly referred to as the “Martínez Cobo Study”. Martínez Cobo, a Special Rapporteur for the UN, conducted an extensive study on the “Problem of Discrimination Against Indigenous Populations” between 1972 and 1983. The results of the study showed that in many countries, there were recognisable characteristics that could be aggregated to create a global framework on specific rights associated with Indigenous Peoples. These rights included, inter alia, the relationship between peoples and their territories, self-identification as Indigenous, historical continuity with pre-colonial and/or pre-settler societies, distinct social, economic, or political systems, languages, cultures, and beliefs and ultimately a desire to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments and distinctive identities.

Recognition of the specificities of Indigenous knowledge, practices, customs and belief systems were woven throughout Martinez-Cobo’s study and continued to emerge as central to the conceptualisation of Indigenous Peoples in international law, particularly with regards to knowledge of the environment and the right to use and govern over natural resources, which in some cases went directly against national legal practices. As the logic of colonial economics was to extract wealth from colonised territories for the benefit of the metropolitan power, it is axiomatic that colonial legal heritage was in contradistinction to Indigenous and local legal and territorial traditions, including all forms of customary law.[3]

The terms used to designate systems of knowledge held and reproduced by Indigenous Peoples varies in time and within different regional and national instruments. The UN has several generations of language related to knowledge systems and there is a further body of terminology used outside of the UN, particularly national norms and even legal terms. The UN acknowledges peoples who self-identify as Indigenous Peoples, while there are many grey areas where peoples may or may not self-identify, and contexts where people have multiple heritages even as a community (e.g. Afrodescendant and Indigenous together), and peoples who have collective systems of natural resource governance and are the first peoples of their territory but do not make any legal claims about being Indigenous Peoples (e.g. many African ethnic groups who rely on traditional agriculture). Terms in common use include Indigenous Knowledge, Indigenous and local knowledge, traditional knowledge, ancestral knowledge, traditional ecological knowledge, and so forth.

In the following brief overview of different UN entities and instruments, it is important not to separate the concept of knowledge from the people who hold and transmit that knowledge, and the entirety of their social, linguistic, spiritual and cultural organisation. Further, for the UN, it is critical not to imagine that knowledge sharing, production or coproduction can be discussed apart from a human rights framework.

Overview of UN instruments and programmes

Overall, the UN’s engagement with Indigenous Peoples on their Indigenous or traditional knowledge systems is rooted in the acknowledgment of the value these knowledge systems bring to global efforts in climate change mitigation, adaptation, biodiversity conservation, and disaster risk reduction. Through the Paris Agreement of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD), the UN has created platforms and set targets to invite State Parties and Indigenous Peoples’ to work together to support and apply Indigenous knowledge in addressing environmental and developmental challenges, with the support of international policy frameworks, ensuring that Indigenous voices are heard and their knowledge respected in global environmental governance.

Despite the overall positive uptake and attention to the rights of Indigenous Peoples and the mobilisation of diverse knowledge systems, in practice, the implementation side has numerous challenges, including the degree to which national scientists and policy makers understand the perspectives, needs and rights of Indigenous Peoples, and how different knowledge systems can have complementarity in their usage, while not subjecting Indigenous knowledge to validation techniques by scientists that are at best unhelpful, and at worst harm trust relationships.

The UN instruments that are both binding and include attention to Indigenous Knowledge systems and human rights are the Rio Conventions.

1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

The primary objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human-induced) interference with the climate system. Having already missed the recommended targets for emissions reduction, the UNFCCC has a series of work streams, including to promote effective adaptation, innovations in mitigation that include nature-based solutions for carbon sequestration, and emerging instruments on loss and damage, including Non-Economic Loss and Damage, which is often important for Indigenous Peoples.

Indigenous Peoples’ built-up advocacy capacity under the UNCBD, which they were able to bring into the UNFCCC over time. Attention to Indigenous Peoples’ knowledge systems began to take shape under the Nairobi work programme on impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation to climate change (NWP) which was established in 2005 at COP11 in Nairobi. NWP became a dialogue forum and clearing house of adaptation measures. Adaptation was given a boost with the adoption of the Cancun Adaptation Framework at COP16. The interaction of the NWP and the Cancun Adaptation Framework helped generate a work stream on Indigenous and Local Knowledge, a process formalised at COP19 in Warsaw. COP19 was a key moment, and led to a series of exchanges and technical work that would inform COP21 in Paris.

1.1 UNFCCC Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement, adopted by Parties at the UNFCCC COP21 in 2015, highlights the importance of respecting the rights and knowledge of Indigenous Peoples in climate action. Specifically, Article 7.5 of the Paris Agreement calls for the consideration of “traditional knowledge, knowledge of Indigenous Peoples and local knowledge systems” in adaptation actions. This is further supported by the subsequent establishment of the Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples Platform (LCIPP) under the UNFCCC, which facilitates the exchange of experiences and best practices on climate actions grounded in traditional knowledge. The LCIPP aims to enhance the mobilisation of Indigenous knowledge in climate policies and practices.

2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The CBD’s primary objective is the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. The CBD text was the first major international environmental agreement to make specific reference to Indigenous knowledge under Articles 8j and 10c. CBD, with its explicit mandate to work with Indigenous Peoples, was also the first major treaty instrument to welcome the emergence of an Indigenous Peoples’ caucus and to establish the right of Indigenous Peoples to speak on items of relevance during Convention meetings.

2.1 UNCBD Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework

Following the mixed results of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2010-2020), Parties to the Convention adopted a landmark agreement which further emphasises both human rights and the mobilisation of Indigenous knowledge in tackling the biodiversity crisis locally and globally. The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KM-GBF), adopted at CBD COP15 in 2022, sets new targets for biodiversity conservation through 2030 and has created an important mechanism for a Joint Programme of Work on the links between biological and cultural diversity that is to be jointly led by the UN and other international agencies in close cooperation with Indigenous Peoples’ networks and leadership.

The KM-GBF emphasizes the crucial role of Indigenous Peoples and their traditional knowledge in achieving biodiversity conservation goals. The framework includes specific targets that underscore the importance of respecting and protecting traditional knowledge. For example, Target 22 aims to ensure that Indigenous Peoples have access to, and control over, their traditional territories and knowledge. The framework recognizes that safeguarding and utilizing traditional knowledge is essential for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, thus promoting the full and effective participation of Indigenous Peoples in biodiversity governance.

3. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

The main objective of the UNCCD is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa. The UNCCD addresses land degradation and promotes sustainable land management practices to prevent desertification, reduce the impact of droughts, and rehabilitate degraded lands.

Unlike the CBD, the original treaty text of the CCD does not make explicit reference to Indigenous Peoples. Articles 16g and 17c make explicit reference to the importance of local and traditional knowledge in understanding and addressing drivers of desertification and sustainable responses. In practice, the CCD has been engaged in numerous dialogues with Indigenous Peoples around the globe, while receiving relatively less international support for ILK initiatives.

In summary, the Rio Conventions represent a comprehensive international framework aimed at addressing three critical global environmental challenges: climate change, biodiversity loss, and desertification. Their creation at the Earth Summit in 1992 marked a significant step forward in international environmental governance. Indigenous Peoples have been engaged in all of the Conventions, and the Rio Conventions have been one of the most important mechanisms for increasing global attention on the role of Indigenous knowledge systems in environmental sustainability. Each has also evolved to give greater attention to the inherent linkages between human rights and Indigenous Peoples.

4. Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystems Services (IPBES)

The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) has been a significant player in engaging with Indigenous Peoples and integrating their knowledge systems into global biodiversity assessments. This engagement is based on the recognition that Indigenous and local knowledge systems (ILK) offer invaluable insights into biodiversity and ecosystem management, which are often overlooked in conventional scientific approaches.

IPBES is primarily a science policy platform, however, as Indigenous and Local Knowledge was included in its founding mandate, it has in practice emerged as a catalyst in the UN system and broader scientific networks. In practice, IPBES methodologies and mobilisation of Indigenous Knowledge in its assessments is creating a new set of norms and standards on Indigenous knowledge and related ethical considerations.

IPBES has established a comprehensive approach to including Indigenous knowledge into its work, which includes the following key strategies:

4.1. Inclusion in Assessment Processes: IPBES explicitly includes Indigenous and local knowledge holders in the preparation, elaboration and review of its assessments. This participatory approach ensures that Indigenous perspectives are considered alongside scientific data and analysis. Indigenous experts and communities are involved in various stages of the assessments, from scoping and drafting to reviewing the findings.

4.2. Thematic Workshops and Dialogues: IPBES organizes thematic workshops and dialogues specifically focused on integrating Indigenous knowledge into its work. These gatherings bring together Indigenous knowledge holders, scientists, and policymakers to share experiences and co-produce knowledge. Such workshops often address topics where Indigenous knowledge is particularly relevant, such as land management, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem resilience.

4.3. ILK Task Force: IPBES established an ILK Task Force to guide the platform’s efforts to incorporate Indigenous knowledge. The ILK Task Force has played a key role in elaborating the IPBES methodological approach to ILK, and the composition of the TF has increasingly represented ILK holders from the North and the South. The Task Force is supported by the Technical Support Unit on Indigenous and Local knowledge, which is hosted and supported by the UNESCO LINKS programme.

4.4. Guidance Documents and Methodological Approaches: IPBES has developed specific guidance documents and methodologies for including Indigenous knowledge in its assessments. These guidelines ensure that the integration of Indigenous knowledge is done respectfully and effectively, recognizing the unique contributions and intellectual property of Indigenous Peoples.

4.5. Policy Recommendations: The inclusion of Indigenous knowledge has also led to more nuanced and culturally appropriate policy recommendations. IPBES assessments that incorporate Indigenous perspectives tend to advocate for policies that respect Indigenous Peoples’ rights, promote community-led conservation, highlight the need for Indigenous resource tenure and recognize the value of traditional ecological knowledge in sustainable development.

In summary, IPBES’s engagement with Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge systems has profoundly shaped its assessments, leading to a more inclusive and accurate understanding of global biodiversity and ecosystem services. This collaborative approach has not only enriched the scientific foundation of IPBES assessments but has also reinforced the importance of Indigenous knowledge in global environmental governance.

5. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Network (BES-Net)

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Network (BES-Net) is a UN interagency initiative of the UN Development Programme (UNDP), UN Environment Programme World Conservation and Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), and UNESCO. It aims to support the capacity-building work of IPBES by strengthening the interface between science, policy, and practice in conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services. It provides support and capacity-building for national research entities, decision-makers and stakeholders to integrate biodiversity considerations into policies and actions on the ground.

BES-Net picks up key themes from the IPBES assessments and assists national governments and stakeholders in understanding, researching and bringing these into policy. One the key components of the BES-Net is the technical support to developing countries to undertake National Ecosystem Assessments using a combination of science and Indigenous and local knowledge. The NEA Initiative is led by UNEP-WCMC.

UNESCO’s LINKS programme hosts the BES-Net technical support unit on Indigenous and Local Knowledge (ILK). Overall, BES-Net champions the mobilisation of ILK for inclusive and evidence-based biodiversity and ecosystem services policies and decision-making.

BES-Net facilitates dialogue between Indigenous and local knowledge holders and scientists, fostering an exchange that respects and incorporates Indigenous perspectives into broader biodiversity discussions. Through “Trialogues”, a unique approach developed by BES-Net, Indigenous and local communities, scientists, and policymakers engage in multi-way dialogues to share insights and co-create solutions on biodiversity and ecosystem management issues.

BES-Net is a key process for capacity building for national research agencies and for holders of Indigenous and local knowledge. Whereas the IPBES Assessments are at a certain level of generationalisation, the BES-Net process focusses on national particularities of both ecosystem diversity and linguistic / cultural / land use diversity. BES-Net is an engine for innovations and emerging practices of transdisciplinary cooperation and knowledge production.

6. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has increasingly recognized the importance of Indigenous knowledge systems in its work, assessments, and special reports. This inclusion reflects a growing understanding that Indigenous knowledge offers valuable insights into climate change impacts, adaptation strategies, and resilience, which are often complementary to scientific findings.

IPCC, unlike its sister entity the IPBES, did not include a founding mandate to include Indigenous knowledge in its assessments and reports. There are authors who have been dedicated to ILK inclusion, while overall, the IPCC approach has been ad hoc and has not been able to establish the same methodological precision as IPBES. IPCC has also less flexibility with ‘grey literature’, sources of information and knowledge that do not occur in peer reviewed scientific publications.

6.1. Assessment Reports:

Fifth Assessment Report (AR5, 2014): The IPCC’s AR5 was one of the first to explicitly recognize the value of Indigenous knowledge. The report highlighted how Indigenous Peoples, particularly those in climate sensitive regions, have developed adaptation strategies based on a deep understanding of local ecosystems and long-term environmental changes. AR5 noted that these communities are often on the front lines of climate change and that their experiences and knowledge systems provide critical information for understanding local impacts and responses.

Sixth Assessment Report (AR6, 2021-2022): In AR6, the IPCC further integrated Indigenous knowledge, particularly in Working Group II’s contribution, which focuses on impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. AR6 acknowledged Indigenous knowledge as crucial for developing locally appropriate adaptation strategies and understanding the socio-cultural dimensions of climate change. The report underscored that Indigenous Peoples’ historical and ongoing management of their environments contributes to climate resilience and biodiversity conservation. AR6 also emphasized the need for more inclusive governance processes that recognize and protect Indigenous knowledge and rights.

6.2. Special Reports:

Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C (2018): This report extensively discussed the role of Indigenous knowledge in understanding climate impacts and developing adaptation strategies, particularly in relation to maintaining global warming within 1.5°C. The report highlighted case studies from various Indigenous Peoples that demonstrate how traditional knowledge can inform sustainable land management, ecosystem restoration, and climate resilience efforts.

Special Report on Climate Change and Land (2019): This report paid special attention to the contributions of Indigenous Peoples to land management and their role in sustainable land use practices. It recognized that Indigenous knowledge systems are integral to managing land in ways that enhance resilience to climate change, particularly in relation to agriculture, forestry, and water management. The report advocated for the inclusion of Indigenous knowledge in policymaking and land-use planning to achieve sustainable outcomes.

Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (2019): Indigenous knowledge was highlighted as essential for understanding the impacts of climate change on marine and cryosphere systems, particularly in the Arctic and small island developing states (SIDS). The report noted that Indigenous communities often have centuries of experience in managing and adapting to changes in these environments and that their knowledge is crucial for informing global responses to climate change.

The IPCC’s reports increasingly recognize the importance of Indigenous Peoples’ rights and governance in climate action. This recognition helps raise awareness that climate policies are more equitable, and that Indigenous Peoples are empowered to contribute to and benefit from climate solutions.

While the IPCC has made significant strides in incorporating Indigenous knowledge, challenges remain. These include the need for better representation of Indigenous Peoples in IPCC processes, ensuring that Indigenous knowledge is not misappropriated or decontextualized, and addressing the barriers that Indigenous communities face in contributing to global climate assessments.

7. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)

The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) at UNESCO has recognized the importance of Indigenous knowledge systems, particularly in the context of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030). This recognition is part of a broader effort to integrate diverse knowledge systems into ocean science and governance to ensure sustainable and inclusive ocean management.

The IOC has acknowledged that Indigenous knowledge systems are crucial for understanding and managing marine environments. Indigenous communities often have a deep, long-standing connection with the ocean, possessing extensive knowledge about marine ecosystems, species behavior, and environmental changes. This knowledge is based on centuries of observation, interaction, and stewardship, making it invaluable for ocean science. IOC works closely with the LINKS programme and other partners.

7.1. Programme engagement with Indigenous Peoples

The IOC has actively engaged with Indigenous Peoples through various platforms and initiatives, aiming to include their voices and perspectives in global ocean governance. This engagement is reflected in consultations, workshops, and partnerships that bring together scientists, policymakers, and Indigenous knowledge holders. Along with the Ocean Decade processes, IOC has undertaken an initiative on Indigenous Peoples perspectives on Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) and has coproduced two publications on MSP involving Indigenous Peoples including a guide on best practices and case studies.

7.2 The UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development

The UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, led by the IOC, emphasizes the need for inclusive and participatory approaches to ocean science. Indigenous knowledge systems are recognized as essential contributors to achieving the Decade’s goals, which include understanding ocean ecosystems, addressing climate change, and ensuring sustainable ocean use.

One of the core principles of the Decade is to ensure that ocean science benefits all of humanity, including Indigenous communities. The Decade seeks to bridge the gap between scientific and Indigenous knowledge by fostering collaborations that respect and incorporate traditional knowledge into ocean research and policy-making.

The Decade promotes the co-design and co-production of knowledge, encouraging the collaboration between scientists and Indigenous communities. This approach ensures that research agendas are developed in partnership with Indigenous Peoples, reflecting their priorities and knowledge systems.

Specific initiatives within the Decade have been designed to include Indigenous knowledge. For example, programs focused on marine biodiversity, ecosystem restoration, and climate resilience often integrate Indigenous knowledge to enhance the relevance and effectiveness of scientific outcomes.

While significant progress has been made in recognizing and integrating Indigenous knowledge systems, challenges remain. These include ensuring meaningful participation of Indigenous Peoples, overcoming differences in knowledge systems and methodologies, and addressing power imbalances in decision-making processes. The IOC continues to work on creating frameworks that respect and protect Indigenous knowledge while facilitating its integration into global ocean science.

8. Food and Agriculture Organization

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) works extensively with Indigenous Peoples to recognize their critical role in sustainable agriculture, biodiversity conservation, and food security. FAO’s collaboration with Indigenous Peoples is built on the recognition that Indigenous communities are vital custodians of traditional knowledge and sustainable practices that have been passed down through generations. This partnership seeks to promote and protect Indigenous Peoples’ rights, knowledge systems, and livelihoods, ensuring they can contribute meaningfully to global agricultural and environmental goals.

Through initiatives such as the Global Hub on Indigenous Food Systems, FAO promotes the exchange of knowledge and experiences, ensuring that Indigenous voices are heard in the global dialogue on food security, sustainability, and climate resilience. The Global Hub has been an important innovation for FAO, arising from advocacy efforts during the 2021 World Food Systems Summit. The Global Hub supports the Coalition on Indigenous Peoples’ Food Systems which allows Indigenous Peoples to work with Member States, UN agencies, the private sector, bilateral and multilateral development institutions to build healthy, equitable and sustainable food systems. The Global Hub and the Coalition have engaged in transdisciplinary dialogues with food and agriculture scientists and have include Indigenous knowledge as a key component of the advocacy.

In addition to FAO’s programmes and policy framework, two other Rome-based UN agencies have been important actors in relation to Indigenous Peoples and inherently with regards to Indigenous knowledge systems.

The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) recognizes the unique relationship Indigenous Peoples have with their land and natural resources, and it seeks to support their traditional livelihoods while enhancing their resilience to climate change and other challenges. Through its Indigenous Peoples’ Forum and dedicated Indigenous Peoples Assistance Facility, IFAD provides grants and technical assistance to help Indigenous communities strengthen their governance, protect their land rights, and promote sustainable agricultural practices. Additionally, the World Food Programme works with Indigenous Peoples to improve food security and nutrition while respecting their unique cultural practices and traditional knowledge. WFP collaborates with Indigenous Peoples to ensure that their needs and priorities are integrated into food assistance programs, particularly in regions affected by hunger, conflict, and climate change. increasingly engages with Indigenous Peoples on their food and knowledge systems. WFP is active in the Coalition on Indigenous Peoples’ Food Systems.

9. Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ)

The High Seas Treaty, officially known as the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement, represents a significant milestone in the global effort to protect and manage the biodiversity of the high seas – areas of the ocean that lie beyond any country’s jurisdiction. One of the most groundbreaking aspects of this treaty is its formal recognition of Indigenous and traditional knowledge as a crucial component in the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity.

The High Seas Treaty explicitly acknowledges the importance of Indigenous and local knowledge systems alongside scientific research. This recognition marks a significant shift from previous international agreements, which often prioritized scientific data over traditional knowledge. The treaty highlights that Indigenous and traditional knowledge can provide valuable insights into marine ecosystems, species behavior, and environmental changes, particularly in areas where scientific data might be limited or unavailable.

The treaty establishes mechanisms to ensure that Indigenous Peoples and local communities (IPLCs) are involved in the governance and decision-making processes related to the high seas. This involvement is intended to be inclusive and participatory, ensuring that the voices and knowledge of these communities are considered in the management of marine biodiversity.

The treaty introduces benefit-sharing mechanisms that acknowledge the contributions of Indigenous and traditional knowledge to the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity. These mechanisms ensure that IPLCs receive equitable benefits from the use of their knowledge, particularly in the context of marine genetic resources, which are a key focus of the treaty.

The High Seas Treaty makes a landmark recognition of Indigenous and traditional knowledge, integrating it into the fabric of international ocean governance in a way that respects and values the contributions of Indigenous Peoples and local communities to the stewardship of marine biodiversity.

10. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has been actively engaged in efforts to safeguard Indigenous knowledge and related practices through its work on traditional knowledge, genetic resources, and traditional cultural expressions (TCEs). These efforts aim to protect the intellectual property (IP) rights of Indigenous Peoples and prevent the misappropriation of their knowledge and cultural heritage.

In May 2024, WIPO member states adopted the first WIPO Treaty to address the interface between intellectual property, genetic resources and traditional knowledge which is also the first WIPO Treaty to include provisions specifically for Indigenous Peoples as well as local communities.

10.1 Progress in Safeguarding Indigenous Knowledge

The primary mechanism under WIPO is the Intergovernmental Committee (IGC) on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge, and Folklore. WIPO established the IGC in 2000 to facilitate discussions on the protection of traditional knowledge, genetic resources, and traditional cultural expressions. The IGC is a key platform where member states, Indigenous groups, and other stakeholders negotiate and discuss the development of international legal frameworks to protect Indigenous knowledge.

WIPO has also developed databases and registries to document and protect traditional knowledge and cultural expressions. These databases aim to prevent the misappropriation of Indigenous knowledge by providing evidence of prior art, which can be used in legal defences against unauthorized IP claims.

Conclusion

The long process of building consensus for the adoption of the UNDRIP, in combination with the shift by the UN to see human rights, environment and sustainable development as inseparable and complementary processes, provided an ideal foundation for a new relationship to emerge between the UN system and Indigenous Peoples as rights holders and knowledge holders.

Through advocacy and joint actions, most UN agencies working on environmental issues, including the wider range of themes such as food systems or cultural practices related to the environment, have recognised the key role of Indigenous Peoples and established a range of platforms, mechanisms, and elaborated norms and standards for the recognition and application of their respective knowledge systems.

While there has been near universal responsiveness from the UN system, the practicalities of greater cooperation between formal science, professional nature conservation and Indigenous ways of knowing and taking care of territory remain an ongoing challenge and opportunity. There is a particular challenge in how rigid and bureaucratic institutions can understand and adjust to the highly adaptive and almost entirely oral Indigenous institutions where knowledge is produced, reproduced and sustained.

UNESCO, which is mandated to work on both science and culture, has been a natural candidate to help stimulate the UN system to better understand the significance of diverse knowledge systems. Over its twenty years of existence, the LINKS programme has been able to gather particular expertise, partnerships and credibility to continue expanding its work into new domains. UNESCO continues to develop its complementary relationships within the UN system, to provide dedicated technical assistance at different scales, and aligns its programming with the principles of the UNDRIP.

The dialogue on the relationship between science and Indigenous knowledge systems, sponsored by the Pontifical Academies of Sciences and of Social Sciences is an important opportunity for a stock-take of the progress that has been made and visions and principles that can lead to improved cooperation, learning and innovation.

 

References

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2021). White/Wiphala paper on Indigenous Peoples’ food systems. FAO. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4932en

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2019). IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2023). Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. (2019). Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services. IPBES Secretariat. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3831673

International Labour Organization. (1989). Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169). https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_INSTRUMENT_ID:312314

Martínez Cobo, J.R. (1981). Study of the problem of discrimination against indigenous populations (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1986/7 and Add.1-4). United Nations. https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/publications/martinez-cobo-study.html

United Nations General Assembly. (2007). United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (A/RES/61/295). https://undocs.org/A/RES/61/295

United Nations. (2015). Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf

United Nations. (2022). Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework under the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. https://www.cbd.int/article/cop15-final-text-kunming-montreal-gbf-221222

United Nations. (2023). Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ). https://www.un.org/bbnj

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2021). UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379949

World Intellectual Property Organization (adopted 2024). WIPO treaty on genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge. https://www.wipo.int/tk/en/

 

[1] Chief Levi General, the Cayuga Deskaheh, attempted to address the League of Nations in 1923: https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/deskaheh-100-haudenosaunee-geneva-1.6913959

[2 There are numerous studies documenting the long negotiations for the UNDRIP. See for example: https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/ga_61-295/ga_61-295.html

[3] There are diverse writers on colonial economics and its extractive character. See for example Issa Shivji: https://www.worldhunger.org/articles/05/africa/shivji.htm